UC-NRLF 


'-  UT> 


Forestry: 

An  Elementary  Treatise. 


Books  for  Lumbermen 


'Tree  Book"          .         .         .         Rogers       $4.00 

"Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North  America" 

Sargent       $6.00 

"Principles  of  American  Forestry" 

Green       $1.50 

"Forest    Utilization,    Mensuration,    and 

Silviculture         .         .         .      Schenck       $5.00 

"Principles  of  Handling  Woodlands" 

Graves       $1.50 

"Forest  Mensuration"      .         .       Graves       $4.00 

"North  American  Forests  and  Forestry" 

•          ...       Bracken       $2.00 

"Handbook  of  the  Trees  of  the  Northern 

States  and  Canada"     .         .     Hough      $6.00 

'The  Principal  Species  of  Trees"  .    Snow      $3.50 

"Bowman  Forest  Physiography" 

•         •         •         •          •          •     Bowman       $5.00 

"Wood  and  Forest"  .  .  Noyes  $3.00 
"Logging  and  Lumbering"  .  Schenck  $5.00 
"Forest  Management"  .  .  Schenck  $.  50 


AMERICAN  LUMBERMAN,  M.*.**  BU*.,  Chicago 


Forestry 


An  Elementary  Treatise 


BY 


Herman  H.  Chapman,  M.  F. 


Assistant  Professpr  of  FortsjtFty, 
Yale  Forest  School. 


AMERICAN  LUMBERMAN 

Chicago,  U.  S.  A. 

1912. 


Copyright  1912 

BY 

AMERICAN  LUMBERMAN 


Price,  $1.25,  postpaid. 


Contents 


I.  General  Definition 7 

II.  Kelation  of  Forestry  to  Government 9 

III.  Scope  of  Forestry  as  a  Profession 11 

IV.  American  Forests 14 

V.     Silvics 15 

The  Forest  versus  the  Single    Tree 15 

Struggle  for  Moisture  and  Light  and  Its  Effect  on  the  Form  of 

the  Tree 16 

Early  History  of  a  Forest  Stand 18 

The  Forest  Floor  and  Its  Effect  on  the  Soil 19 

Differentiation  of  Crown  Classes 20 

Old  Age  of  a  Stand ". 21 

Silvical  Characteristics  of  Tree  Species 22 

Effect  of  Heat  on  the  Distribution  of  Trees 23 

Soil  Moisture  and  Its  Eelation  to  the  Life  of  Trees 24 

Characteristics  of  Soils  Affecting  Soil  Moisture 25 

Effect  of  Soil  Moisture  on  Competition  of  Species 26 

Struggle  for  Light  as  Affecting  Competition  of  Species 27 

Tolerance    28 

Indications  of  Tolerance  in  the  Form  of  Trees 30 

Formation  of  Forests  of  Tolerant  versus  Intolerant  Trees..   30 

Duration  of  Life  of  Trees 32 

Reproduction  of  Trees  and  Stands.     The  Seed 33 

Distribution   of   Seed 33 

Extension  of  the  Forest   on  to  Abandoned  Pastures 34 

The  Seed  Bed  and  the  Seedling 35 

Eeproduction   by   Sprouts 36 

Forest    Types 37 

Basis  for  Distinguishing  Types 39 

Forest    Enemies.     Fires 40 

Resistance  of  Trees  to  Fires 41 

Nature  of  Forest  Fires  and  Their  Effect  on  Forests 43 

Other  Forest   Enemies . .  .44 


0 

.  ) 


YL     Silviculture   .................................................  46 

Eelation   Between   Silvicultural   Operations   and   the   Value   of 

Wood   Products  ...........................................  46 

Planting    ..................................................  47 

Cutting  the  Old  Timber  to  Secure  Eeproduction  ..............  49 

Silvicultural   Systems  .......................................  50 

Strip  and  Group  Systems  .................................  50 

Clear   Cutting   with   Seed   Trees  ..........................  50 

Selection  System  .........................................  51 

Changing  a  Selection  Forest  to  an  Even-  Aged  Form  ........  53 

Eeproduction  of  Even-  Aged  Stands  by  Successive  Cuttings  .  .  54 

Sprout  System  ............................................  55 

Unwise  Legislation  Eegulating  Silvicultural  Methods  .......  56 

Nature  of  the  Investment  Demanded  by  Silvicultural  Oper- 

ations  .................................................  56 

u-*^ 

* 

VII.     Fire  Protection  ...............................................  58 

Fire  Fighting  ..................  .............................  58 

Fire-Breaks  ................................................  59 

Fire   Laws  .................................................  61 

Fire  Patrol  .................................................  63 

VIII.     Tax  Laws  ...................................................  65 

IX.     Forest  Mensuration  .....................  ......................  66 

,  Timber  Estimating  ..........................................  67 

Determining  the  Growth  of  Stands.     Yield  Tables  ............  68 

Current  Growth  of  Stands  ..................................  69 

Growth  of  Individual  Trees  .................................  69 

X.    Forest  Valuation  .............................................  70 

XI.     Forest  Policy  ................................................  71 

Influences  of  Forests  on  Climate  .............................  72 

Influences  of  Forests  on  Streams  and  Soil  Erosions  ...........  73 

Government   Eegulation   versus  Government  Ownership  .......  73 

History  of  National  Forestry  in  United  States  ................  74 

State  Forestry  ..............................................  76 

Agricultural  Soils  versus  Forest  Soils  .......................  77 

The  State  as  a  Producer  of  Timber.  .                           ...........  78 


FORESTRY,    ;; 

BY  HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN.      , • , ^ >»  ^j  \  /•, 

[Born,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1874;  B.  Sc.,  University  of  Minnesota,  1896;  B. 
Agr.,  University  of  Minnesota,  1899;  Superintendent  Northeast  Agricultural 
Experiment  Farm,  Grand  Rapids,  Minnesota,  1898-1903;  M.  F.  Yale,  1904; 
Forest  Assistant,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  1904-5;  Instructor  in  Forestry.  Yale 
Forest  School,  1906;  Assistant  Professor  of  Forestry,  Yale  Forest  School, 
1907.] 

I.    GENERAL  DEFINITION. 

To  the  question  so  frequently  asked,  "What  is  For- 
estry?" it  would  be  difficult  to  give  a  concise  and  satis- 
factory answer,  for  forestry  is  a  union  of  many  elements  as 
widely  different  in  character  as  those  which  enter  into 
the  activities  of  a  city  like  Chicago. 

But  the  foundation  of  forestry  is  the  growing  of  trees 
as  a  crop  to  be  cut  and  used.  Everything  else  hinges  on 
this  principle.  The  mere  growing  of  trees  is  not  forestry, 
for  they  may  be  intended  as  shade  trees  or  for  ornamental 
purposes.  To  cut  them  for  the  wood  they  contain  would  be 
to  destroy  their  real  usefulness.  So  the  planting  and  care  of 
shade  trees  is  not  forestry.  The  forester  should  know 
about  these  things,  but  they  are  a  side  line,  the  specialty  of 
the  landscape  gardener  who  does  not  need  to  know  any- 
thing about  true  forestry. 

Nor  is  the  mere  cutting  and  marking  of  timber,  true 
forestry.  Too  often  the  lumberman  cares  nothing  about 
the  growth  of  his  timber,  or  the  possibility  of  ever  getting 
a  second  crop  from  the  land  which  he  is  stripping.  De- 
structive lumbering  and  forestry  are  at  opposite  poles. 
Lumbering  is  in  reality  a  very  important  department  of 
forestry,  but  the  distinguishing  feature  remains,  as  before, 
the  actual  growing  of  the  timber. 

In  recent  years,  with  increasing  public  interest  in  for- 
estry, lumbermen  are  becoming  more  anxious  to  be  known 


8  FORESTRY 

as  practicing  forestry.  It  stands  to  reason  that  no  lumber- 
man can  fee  .practicing  forestry  who  does  not  definitely  in- 
tend to  cut  a  second  crop  of  timber  from  his  land,  after  the 
first  cutting;  ^fccli^t  least  part  of  the  value  of  this  second 
crop  should  be  obtained' from  the  growth,  or  increased  size 
of  the  timber  he  leaves  at  the  time  of  the  first  cutting. 
At  present  it  is  the  almost  universal  custom  of  lumber- 
men to  cut  every  stick  of  merchantable  timber  and  then 
sell  or  abandon  the  land.  If  a  second  cutting  is  obtained 
it  has  usually  been  because  at  the  time  of  the  first  cut 
it  did  not  pay  to  take  out  small,  knotty,  or  defective  timber, 
or  timber  of  certain  species  was  not  saleable.  As  the  value 
of  all  timber  became  greater,  the  lumberman  found  he 
could  return  and  conduct  a  second  operation  profitably. 
Often,  when  considerable  time  elapsed  between  the  first 
and  second  cut,  the  small  timber  had  really  grown  much 
larger  and  more  valuable.  But  the  chief  increase  was  al- 
ways in  the  price.  This  may  be  forestry,  but  it  is  not  in- 
tentional, and  does  not  in  any  way  cause  the  lumberman  to 
depart  from  his  working  principle,  which  is,  to  remove  ev- 
ery stick  of  timber  now,  provided  it  can  be  done  at  a  profit. 
When  the  timber  owner  holds  forest  lands  to  profit  by  the 
actual  growth  of  the  timber,  or  logs  it  in  such  a  way  that 
he  deliberately  and  purposely  leaves  an  investment  of  seed 
trees  or  young  timber  which  must  grow  to  give  him  returns 
on  his  money — then  and  not  till  then,  can  he  be  said  to  be 
practicing  forestry. 

The  truest  conception  of  forestry  is  that  of  devoting 
land  permanently  to  forest  production.  Successive  crops 
of  trees  are  grown  upon  the  same  land  and  these  crops  are 
either  cut  clean  and  replanted  or  are  made  to  reproduce 
themselves  naturally  by  seeds  or  sprouts.  In  European 
states,  where  forestry  has  been  thoroughly  established  for  a 
century,  there  has  grown  up  a  very  definite  classification  of 
lands  into  forest  land  and  agricultural  land.  Upon  the 
forest  soils,  considered  too  poor  for  agriculture,  can  be  seen 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  9 

all  stages  of  forest  crops,  from  the  seedling  up  to  the  ma- 
ture timber  in  the  process  of  removal  and  reproduction. 

This  conception  of  forestry  has  only  dimly  begun  to 
take  root  in  the  public  mind  in  America.  Too  often,  for- 
estry means  only  forest  preservation.  The  cutting  of  tim- 
ber is  fiercely  opposed  on  general  principles.  In  the  con- 
ception of  such  persons,  public  forests  are  merely  public 
parks,  to  be  preserved  as  such.  This  view  is  at  total  va- 
riance with  the  treatment  of  forests  as  crops  of  timber,  and 
where  it  prevails,  the  practice  of  forestry  becomes  impos- 
sible. 

II.  RELATION  OF  FORESTRY  TO  GOVERNMENT. 

But  while  timber  is  a  crop,  there  are  many  features 
which  put  it  in  a  different  class  from  the  agricultural  crops. 
The  latter  are  harvested  annually  and  produce  a  constant 
and  regular  income.  Their  production  can  be  left  entirely 
to  individuals,  and  the  only  relation  which  agriculture  has 
with  the  government  is  in  the  indirect  efforts  put  forth  by 
experiment  stations  and  through  publications  intended  to 
instruct  farmers  in  better  methods  of  cultivation.  Could 
the  growing  of  timber  be  carried  on  exclusively  by  private 
parties,  to  the  complete  satisfaction  and  safeguarding  of 
the  interests  of  the  public,  the  two  occupations  would  be 
very  similar,  and  forestry  might  truly  be  regarded  as  mere- 
ly a  branch  of  agriculture. 

But  universal  experience  proves  the  absolute  contrary. 
Whenever  the  management  of  forest  lands  has  been  left 
entirely  in  private  hands,  the  public  interests  are  entirely 
ignored  and  a  short  sighted,  often  ruinous  policy  of  forest 
destruction  has  been  the  rule,  ultimately  forcing  the  public, 
through  their  governments,  to  interfere  for  their  own  pro- 
tection. And  in  regions  and  countries  where  governments 
have  been  unable  or  unwilling  or  not  wise  enough  to  in- 
terfere, the  final  results  have  often  been  almost  complete 
ruin  and  depopulation  of  the  country. 


10  FORESTRY 

From  the  public  standpoint,  the  interests  are  several. 
The  product,  wood,  is  almost  indispensable  in  many  impor- 
tant lines  of  industry.  Substitutes  are  being  continually 
forced  into  service  by  the  increasing  scarcity  of  wood,  but 
for  many  uses  they  are  not  so  satisfactory.  New  uses  are 
appearing  for  wood,  and  the  demand  along  established 
lines  shows  constant  increase.  The  growing  of  wood  will 
not  only  secure  a  continuance  of  the  supply  of  a  multitude 
of  essential  articles  which  enter  into  our  everyday  life  and 
comfort,  but  the  industries  which  are  now  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  wood  products,  and  the  logging  and  market- 
ing of  wood  will  continue  to  employ  men  and  distribute 
wages.  Then  comes  the  public  interest  in  the  protection 
of  soil  and  waterways.  Private  owners  can  and  do  ignore 
the  possible  effects  of  forest  removal  on  the  flow  of  streams, 
the  erosion  of  soil  and  the  welfare  of  their  neighbors  fur- 
ther down.  Just  to  the  extent  that  these  results  are  inju- 
rious, is  the  government  called  upon  to  prevent  them  in  the 
interests  of  common  justice. 

The  relation  of  the  government  to  forestry  is  greatly 
strengthened  and  the  ability  of  private  owners  to  grow 
timber  crops  much  lessened  by  the  long  periods  of  time 
which  must  elapse  before  trees  reach  sizes  large  enough 
to  furnish  profitable  crops  of  timber.  Pence  posts  may  be 
grown  on  rich  agricultural  land  in  10  to  15  years,  but 
timber  grown  on  true  forest  soils,  takes  40  to  100 
years  to  mature.  During  the  time  the  crop  is  growing  the 
owner  gets  very  small  returns  if  any,  and  his  expenditures 
for  planting,  protection  and  taxes  roll  up  at  compound 
interest  to  a  large  sum.  If  to  this  certain  expense,  is  added 
the  uncertainty  that  he  will  live  long  enough  to  receive 
any  benefit  from  his  exertions,  beyond  the  satisfaction  of 
leaving  his  estate  to  relatives  or  descendants,  we  can  un- 
derstand the  chief  barriers  to  private  forestry  on  a  large 
scale.  Even  corporations,  which  are  looked  upon  as  fairly 
permanent,  cannot  plan  too  far  into  the  future,  since  they 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  11 

must  earn  regular  dividends  and  manage  their  holdings 
for  present  rather  than  future  revenue.  None  of  these 
drawbacks  apply  to  state  or  national  governments,  whose 
interests  are  perpetual. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  raising  of  tim- 
ber crops  is  a  matter  which  ultimately  concerns  not  merely 
individuals  as  such  but  the  whole  public,  as  acting  through 
the  government.  Even  the  private  efforts  to  grow  timber 
need  the  encouragement  of  the  government,  both  in  educa- 
tional lines  and  in  protective  measures,  such  as  fire  laws. 

HI.  THE  SCOPE  OF  FORESTS Y  AS  A  PROFESSION. 

A  study  of  forestry  or  the  training  of  a  professional 
forester  will  include  all  the  main  aspects  of  forestry.  These 
are — 

1.  Political  and  economic. 

2.  Technical. 

3.  Business. 

The  political  and  economic  side  deals  with  the  rela- 
tions that  forests  bear  to  the  public.  The  amount  of  stand- 
ing timber  and  forest  areas,  the  uses  of  timber  and  possi- 
bilities of  using  substitutes  are  studied.  The  actual  rela- 
tions of  forests  to  climate  and  water  are  investigated.  The 
laws  bearing  on  forests  and  forest  protection,  and  the  pol- 
icy of  governments,  must  be  understood.  Without  a  firm 
grip  on  the  essentials  of  forest  policy,  the  forester  is  poorly 
prepared  for  this  work,  especially  in  a  country  such  as  ours, 
where  so  much  remains  to  be  done,  the  forester's  chief  duty 
may  well  be  to  secure  proper  laws  and  a  progressive  and 
stable  forest  policy  before  he  undertakes  much  along  the 
line  of  timber  production. 

The  technical  side  of  forestry  calls  for  the  application 
of  scientific  and  practical  knowledge  of  the  growth  of  trees, 
the  knowledge  of  how  to  get  results  and  avoid  failures.  A 
crop  failure  is  a  more  serious  matter  when  the  growth  of 


12  FORESTRY 

50  years  may  be  destroyed  or  be  of  inferior  quality,  than 
if  but  a  single  season's  product  is  damaged.  Beginning 
with  Forest  Botany  or  Dendrology,  in  which  he  learns  the 
distinguishing  characters  of  tree  species,  the  forester  be- 
comes acquainted  with  the  structure  of  the  woods  and  with 
their  different  qualities  and  the  uses  to  which  they  are  best 
adapted.  Then  the  factors  of  soil  and  climate  must  be  un- 
derstood since  trees,  having  a  long  life,  show  great  varia- 
tions in  their  demands  on  soil,  moisture,  and  heat,  and  pro- 
duce very  different  results  in  different  situations.  Silvics 
teaches  us  the  different  traits  and  peculiarities  of  the  tree 
species,  seed  production  and  germination,  the  conditions 
under  which  the  seed  will  grow,  the  demands  of  the  seed- 
ling for  light,  the  ability  of  the  tree  to  win  out  in  compe- 
tition with  others,  its  form,  its  power  of  resistance  to  ene- 
mies and  injuries,  and  the  real  value  of  the  species  for  dif- 
ferent localities  and  conditions.  Silviculture  applies  this 
knowledge  in  the  form  of  definite  plans  and  methods,  by 
which  the  largest  and  most  valuable  crops  of  timber  may 
be  raised  on  any  soil  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  Added 
to  this,  the  forester  must  know  the  dangers  which  threaten 
his  crop,  and  how  to  anticipate  and  avoid  them.  This  ap- 
plies both  to  the  mature  timber  and  to  the  young  seedlings. 
Fire,  wind,  and  fungus  or  insect  enemies  threaten  the  grow- 
ing trees,  just  as  storms,  weeds,  insects  and  fungi  injure 
the  farmer's  crops.  Finally  he  must  know  how  to  get  his 
crop  to  market.  The  art  of  lumbering  is  a  trade  in  itself, 
and  considerable  knowledge  and  skill  is  required  to  con- 
duct a  logging  operation  with  the  least  cost.  But  the  for- 
ester must  be  able  to  modify  old  established  customs  of 
lumbering,  to  persuade  or  force  lumbermen,  contractors, 
and  laborers  to  do  unfamiliar  things,  such  as  burning  brush 
or  taking  care  not  to  destroy  young  trees.  He  must,  there- 
fore, be  enough  of  a  lumberman  so  that  his  recommenda- 
tions will  be  practical  and  capable  of  being  carried  out. 
The  subject  of  road  building  is  of  great  importance,  for  the 

B— III— 10 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  13 

biggest  problem  of  forestry  is  the  transportation  to  mar- 
ket of  the  bulky  and  heavy  products,  and  whether  this  be 
done  by  wagon,  railroad  or  stream,  on  ice  or  on  dry  ground, 
the  forester  must  understand  his  problem  and  be  able  to 
choose  the  cheapest  method  and  lay  out  his  roads  so  they 
will  most  efficiently  perform  their  office. 

The  third  branch  of  knowledge  demanded  by  foresters 
is  the  business  side  of  forestry.  No  matter  whether  forests 
are  managed  by  private  parties  or  by  the  government,  it 
means  that  large  tracts  of  land  are  devoted  to  the  produc- 
tion of  timber  crops,  which  must  be  cared  for  and  sold. 
To  carry  out  all  the  work  required  on  such  a  tract  demands 
orderly  business  methods,  and  a  knowledge  of  costs  and  re- 
turns. If  forests  require  such  long  periods  of  growth  it 
is  important  that  different  stands  be  established  not  all 
of  the  same  age,  so  that  if  possible,  there  may  be  timber 
ready  to  cut  every  year  and  a  steady  revenue  be  possible. 
We  must  know  something  about  the  probable  size  and  value 
of  the  timber  and  to  get  this  knowledge  we  depend  on  For- 
est Mensuration.  Mensuration  is  not  in  this  case  a  study 
of  abstruse  mathematics.  It  is  rather  the  intelligent  appli- 
cation of  a  few  simple  methods  to  get  at  the  facts,  and  it 
is  much  more  important  to  understand  natural  laws  of 
growth  of  trees  and  stands  than  to  attempt  to  apply  re- 
fined mathematical  calculations  to  stands  which  refuse  to 
grow  in  conformity  with  them.  A  higher  branch  of  forest 
management  discusses  the  best  ways  to  bring  a  forest  into 
the  condition  where  it  can  be  maintained  permanently,  pro- 
ducing a  regular  yield  each  year  of  wood.  The  organiza- 
tion of  a  force  of  men  to  do  the  work  on  a  forest,  or  on 
larger  areas  of  forests,  such  as  might  belong  to  a  nation 
or  state,  calls  for  a  knowledge  of  the  amount  of  labor 
necessary  for  efficient  results  and  the  proper  division  of 
work  and  responsibility.  In  nearly  all  respects,  forests  are 
more  economically  cared  for  when  the  areas  are  fairly 
large  and  compact,  than  if  split  up  into  small  tracts. 


14  FORESTRY 

IV.  AMEBICAN  FOEESTS. 

American  forests  are  noted  for  their  large  number  of 
valuable  species.  The  forests  of  Europe,  compared  with 
ours,  are  monotonous.  In  northern  Europe  a  single  species 
of  pine,  Pinus  Sylvestris,  is  the  only  representative  of  its 
genus,  supplemented  in  the  south  by  two  others.  In  Amer- 
ica we  have  over  thirty  different  species,  and  no  large  re- 
gion is  without  at  least  three.  Other  conifers  are  usually 
represented  more  numerously  here  than  in  Europe,  espe- 
cially in  the  forests  of  the  Pacific  coast,  where  in  addition 
to  numerous  firs  and  representatives  of  the  cedar,  yew, 
larch,  spruce,  incense  cedars  and  cypress,  we  have  two  gen- 
era not  found  at  all  in  the  old  world — the  Douglas  fir  or 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia,  and  two  species  of  big  tree,  the  coast 
redwood  and  the  big  trees  of  the  Sierras.  The  sugar  pine, 
largest  of  the  white  pines,  grows  in  the  Sierras.  The  se- 
quoia, or  big  tree  groves,  have  most  unfortunately  passed 
largely  into  private  ownership,  but  through  the  generosity 
of  one  or  two  men  some  of  the  finest  timber  has  been  deeded 
to  the  national  government  and  is  secure  from  destruction. 
Even  aside  from  these  giant  trees,  which  surpass  in  gran- 
deur any  forests  ever  known,  the  size  and  value  of  the  coast 
redwoods  and  of  the  Douglas  fir  stands  in  Washington  and 
Oregon,  are  greater  than  any  known  forest  in  Europe  or  the 
tropics. 

Just  as  the  west  coast  excels  in  conifers,  so  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  country  is  first  in  her  array  of  valuable  hard- 
woods. The  Appalachian  region  is  the  central  home  of  these 
hardwood  species.  Europe  has  two  oaks  of  commercial 
value,  America  has  nearer  forty.  Beech,  for  lack  of  any- 
thing better,  is  made  much  of  abroad.  Here  we  may  grow 
ash,  hickories,  maple,  birches,  elm,  basswood,  yellow  or  tulip 
poplar,  chestnut  and  a  long  list  of  other  trees  of  greater  or 
less  importance  each  of  them  possessing  some  particularly 
valuable  qualities,  or  else  showing  capacity  for  growth  on 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  15 

situations  ill-adapted  to  more  valuable  kinds.  This  pro- 
fusion of  species  is  in  a  sense  a  drawback,  for  German  for- 
esters with  only  two  or  three  important  trees  to  study,  soon 
perfected  their  systems  of  cultivation  and  built  up  an  or- 
derly scheme  of  management.  We  must  adopt  new  plans 
for  every  species  and  every  region  and  the  knowledge 
gained  in  one  locality  will  not  necessarily  apply  elsewhere. 

V.  SILVICS. 

The  Forest  versus  the  Single  Tree. — A  forest  must 
be  studied  from  two  standpoints — first,  the  individual 
trees  and  their  characteristics,  and  second,  the  attri- 
butes of  the  forest  as  a  whole.  Trees  growing  singly 
not  only  follow  different  laws  of  growth  and  devel- 
opment than  when  crowded  together  in  a  forest,  but  the 
effects  of  a  forest  upon  the  soil  are  not  secured  unless  the 
trees  cover  practically  the  entire  surface.  An  illustration 
of  tree  growth  which  does  not  properly  constitute  forest 
growth  is  found  in  orchards  or  in  shade  trees.  Each  tree 
is  allowed  full  crown  space  and  develops  a  symmetrical 
form  with  a  short  trunk,  branching  near  the  ground. 
No  two  species  assume  the  same  form,  even  when  open 
grown.  White  oaks  will  send  horizontal  branches  to 
great  distances  and  grow  into  hemispherical  shaped  crown. 
Hard  maple  takes  an  oblong  or  elliptical  shape,  while  the 
white  elm  always  develops  the  umbrella  shaped  crown 
which  makes  its  presence'so  desirable  as  a  shade  tree  over- 
hanging roadways  and  lanes. 

Such  large  and  well-developed  crowns  mean  a  corre- 
spondingly large  root  system,  which  is  secured  by  the  ab- 
sence of  competition  with  other  trees.  The  size  of  the  crown 
is  an  indication  of  the  freedom  of  root  growth.  It  often 
happens  that  old  trees  in  city  streets  die  as  a  result  of  inter- 
ference with  the  roots,  through  the  laying  of  pavements 
impervious  to  water.  Trees  which  are  found  in  a  thriving 
condition  when  growing  entirely  alone,  have  usually  de- 


16  FORESTRY 

veloped  from  small  sizes,  under  the  same  conditions,  and 
have  adjusted  their  root  system  to  the  moisture  supply, 
and  their  boles  and  crowns  to  the  exposure  to  wind  and 
abundant  light.  The  ground  about  such  trees  may  be  baked 
hard  by  the  wind  and  sun,  or  covered  with  a  dense  sod,  but 
the  tree  will  resist  these  drying  influences  since  it  has  al- 
ways had  them  to  contend  with,  and  its  roots  have  spread 
out  and  struck  deep,  insuring  abundant  moisture.  At  the 
same  time,  the  trunk  at  the  base  has  swelled  into  a  strong 
buttress,  and  the  crown  lies  low  on  a  tapering  bole,  so  that 
the  form  and  strength  of  the  stem  are  ideal  for  resisting 
the  sudden  onslaught  of  a  fierce  wind.  Competition  with 
other  trees  is  eliminated,  and  the  tree  easily  masters  the 
opposing  forces  of  the  elements. 

The  Struggle  for  Moisture  and  Light  and  its  Effect  on 
the  Form  of  Trees. — But  in  the  forest,  single  trees  grow 
so  closely  together  that  there  is  a  struggle  between  them 
for  the  necessities  of  life,  light  and  moisture.  Plant  food 
is  taken  up  by  means  of  water,  always  in  solution,  and  the 
amount  of  moisture  present  is  of  more  importance  in  its 
effects  on  tree  growth  than  the  richness  of  the  soil  in  chem- 
ical food  supplies.  This  struggle  for  light  and  moisture 
gives  the  forest  its  distinctive  form.  Wherever  there  is 
sufficient  soil  moisture  to  support  a  full  stand  of  trees,  the 
competition  is  fiercest  for  light.  But  in  many  places  the 
moisture  is  very  scant,  and  then  the  struggle  becomes  whol- 
ly one  of  root  competition  for  water.  The  form  of  a  forest 
growing  on  dry  soil  is  necessarily  open.  Trees  are  spaced 
at  considerable  intervals,  and  their  crowns  have  room  to 
develop.  But  investigations  show  that  the  stand  is  really 
as  dense  as  the  soil  will  support.  Young  seedlings  which 
may  spring  up,  die  out  in  a  few  years,  because  they  are 
unable  to  get  moisture.  The  roots  of  the  old  trees,  larger 
and  more  vigorous  than  the  seedling,  and  penetrating  deep- 
er, suck  up  all  the  water,  and  the  seedlings  perish  of 
drought.  Such  stands  are  true  forests,  although  they  may 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  17 

resemble  the  orchard  form  of  the  growth,  since  the  struggle 
is  taking  place  underground,  and  the  trees  influence  each 
other  only  through  their  roots.  In  extremely  dry  regions 
such  scattered  trees  will  have  all  the  attributes  of  open- 
grown  shade  trees,  including  the  buttressed  and  swelling 
roots,  but  since  the  supply  of  moisture  is  so  small,  the 
crowns  will  be  correspondingly  scant  and  open  rather  than 
full  and  dense.  Such  forests  are  common  through  the  drier 
portions  of  the  West. 

^/\Tien  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  and  the  soil  retentive,  as 
is  largely  the  case  through  the  eastern  half  of  America,  the 
struggle  is  transferred  to  the  crowns,  and  becomes  one  for 
the  possession  of  light.  As  many  trees  will  grow  on  an  acre 
as  can  secure  light  enough  to  live.  In  a  forest  stocked  with 
the  full  number,  the  crowns  touch  and  throw  almost  com- 
plete shade.  The  growth  of  the  trees  in  height  is  stimu- 
lated, and  their  sidebranches  are  killed  by  the  shade  of 
their  competitors.  Those  which  grow  fastest  in  height  sur- 
vive. The  form  of  such  trees  is  strikingly  different  from 
the  same  species  grown  in  open  places.  The  first  live 
branches  are  much  farther  up  the  bole,  and  in  old  trees, 
most  of  the  lower  branches  have  not  only  died  and  fallen 
off,  but  the  scar  has  closed  over  completely,  giving  the 
trunk  the  appearance  of  having  never  possessed  those  lower 
branches.  What  crown  there  is,  is  confined  to  the  top,  where 
it  gets  the  light  from  above,  or,  if  one  side  or  the  other  hap- 
pens to  be  exposed  to  the  light,  we  find  the  crown  abnormal- 
ly developed  on  this  side.  The  bole  is  slender  and  holds 
its  size  well,  approaching  a  cylinder  in  form  and  not  taper- 
ing rapidly  until  the  live  crown  is  reached.  The  base  does 
not  show  a  large  swelling,  although  some  is  always  present. 
Such  a  tree,  protected  by  its  neighbors  from  the  force  of 
the  wind  and  from  excessive  evaporation  of  soil  moistiire, 
has  not  developed  the  extremely  resistant  form  of  the  open 
grown  tree.  If  the  stand  is  cut  away,  leaving  it  alone  and 
exposed,  several  things  may  happen.  If  the  species  is 


18  FORESTET 

shallow-rooted,  it  wiir  probably  blow  over  in  the  first  big 
wind.  If  it  is  exacting  in  its  demands  for  soil  moisture, 
the  roots  will  dry  out  and  the  tree  will  die.  This  often 
happens  to  species  which  habitually  grow  only  under  the 
shade  of  other  trees.  If  it  is  a  young  tree  with  thin  bark, 
the  bark  may  sun-scald  badly,  causing  wounds  which  give 
entrance  to  spores  of  fungi  that  will  cause  the  tree  to  rot. 
But  if  the  tree  is  naturally  deep-rooted,  fairly  stocky,  with 
thick  bark,  it  will  survive  the  change  and  will  at  once  begin 
to  strengthen  its  base  against  the  unusual  wind  strain,  at 
the  same  time  enlarging  its  crown  and  roots.  The  growth 
will  probably  increase  and  the  tree  will  begin  to  bear  seed 
in  great  abundance. 

'  The  forest  form  of  the  species  is  therefore  not  as  well 
adapted  to  sudden  changes  as  the  open  grown  tree,  but  it 
is  vastly  more  useful  in  the  production  of  material.  The 
taller  and  more  cylindrical  a  tree  is,  the  greater  will  be 
the  per  cent  of  its  volume  that  can  be  used.  The  fewer 
branches  it  has  and  the  sooner  these  fall  off,  the  more  valu- 
able will  be  the  products. 

Left  to  themselves,  trees  will  always  form  forests  in 
regions  with  sufficient  rainfall  to  support  tree  life.  This 
fact,  and  the  immensely  greater  production  both  in  quan- 
tity and  value  of  material  when  trees  are  grown  in  forests, 
makes  it  necessary  to  consider  the  forest  stand  as  the  real 
unit  in  forestry,  instead  of  the  single  tree. 

The  Early  History  of  a  Forest  Stand.— The  development 
of  a  stand  of  trees  is  best  illustrated  by  taking  the  example 
of  an  area  which  has  been  seeded  to  a  single  species  all 
about  the  same  time.  This  occurs  with  certain  pines,  as 
for  instance  on  an  abandoned  field.  Such  natural  seeding 
is  never  uniform,  but  the  seedlings  occur  in  groups,  and 
many  small  openings  are  left,  while  in  other  spots  a  dense 
mat  of  seedlings  may  spring  up.  But  on  the  whole  the 
stand  may  be  fairly  uniform  and  the  trees  within  a  few 
years  of  the  same  age.  The  open  spots  not  occupied  by 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  19 

seedlings  may  be  filled  with  grass,  weeds,  or  shrubs,  and 
with  these  the  seedling  must  compete  both  for  moisture 
and  light. 

As  the  seedlings  grow  in  height,  their  crowns  spread 
and  interfere  more  and  more,  casting  a  shade  which  first 
kills  out  the  grass  and  weeds  and  many  of  the  bushy  plants, 
and  then  begins  to  cause  the  death  of  the  lower  branches 
of  the  seedlings  themselves.  Almost  at  once,  in  the  more 
crowded  portions,  the  weaker  seedlings  or  those  which  did 
not  get  so  early  a  start  as  the  others,  begin  to  die  out 
through  the  competition  of  their  more  vigorous  neighbors. 
vAs  the  trees  grow  in  height,  more  and  more  of  them  are 
killed  in  the  struggle.  This  diminution  in  numbers  is  nat- 
ural and  inevitable.  There  is  not  room  for  more  than  a 
very  small  per  cent  of  the  original  stand,  and  the  strong- 
est are  best  able  to  appropriate  the  growing  space.  A  stand 
of  seedlings  fully  stocked,  may  have  from  5,000  to  20,000 
plants  per  acre.  The  same  stand  at  maturity  may  not  re- 
tain more  than  100  trees.  <.  As  long  as  the  growth  in  height 
continues  there  will  be  a  correspondingly  rapid  reduction 
in  numbers.  After  the  trees  have  attained  their  principal 
height  growth,  the  numbers  still  diminish,  but  much  more 
slowly. 

The  Forest  Floor  and  its  Effect  on  the  Soil. — As  soon 
as  a  complete  cover  is  formed  by  the  crowns  the  soil  is 
shaded  and  grass  is  killed  out.  This  very  much  reduces  the 
evaporation,  since  grass  and  weeds  use  a  much  larger 
amount  of  water  from  the  surface  soil  than  woody  plants, 
a  fact  which  gives  them  their  strongest  hold  in  competition 
with  tree  seedlings.  The  annual  fall  of  leaves  or  needles 
begins  to  accumulate  and  soon  forms  a  mat  of  litter  which 
still  further  checks  evaporation.  Since  the  agencies  which 
harden  a  soil  are  sun,  wind  and  rain,  while  opposed  to  these 
frost  and  the  growth  of  roots  tend  to  make  soil  loose  and 
mellow,  we  find  soils  protected  by  a  forest  cover  and  a  leaf 
litter,  becoming  soft  and  capable  of  rapidly  absorbing  the 


20  FORESTRY 

water  which  falls  upon  them.  The  hardening  influences 
are  overcome  by  the  protection  of  the  forest.  This  capac- 
ity to  absorb  water  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  dead 
leaves,  fallen  branches  and  even  the  stumps  of  standing 
trees  tend  to  obstruct  the  flow  of  water  and  give  it  a  chance 
to  soak  into  the  soil.  This  increased  absorption  and  water- 
holding  capacity  of  the  soil  improves  its  condition  and  re- 
sults in  a  better  growth  of  the  trees.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
ways  in  which  the  forest  creates  favorable  conditions  for 
its  own  existence.  As  the  litter  increases  it  begins  to  de- 
cay, and  finally  disintegrates  into  a  dark  material  known  as 
humus  in  which  the  structure  of  the  original  leaves  and 
twigs  is  no  longer  noticeable.  This  humus  has  a  high  value 
both  as  a  sponge  to  hold  water,  and  for  its  chemical  and 
physiological  effects  on  the  soil.  The  mineral  food  con- 
tained in  the  vegetation  is  made  available  for  use  again  and 
the  presence  of  humus  promotes  both  the  chemical  disinte- 
gration of  the  soil  by  which  new  portions  of  plant  food  are 
released  and  the  bacteriological  activity  which  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  activity  of  roots. 

The  stand  may  be  said  to  reach  its  maximum  vigor 
about  the  time  that  the  trees  have  attained  nearly  their 
full  height.  Height  growth  in  some  species  continues  slow- 
ly until  death,  in  others  it  ceases  almost  altogether  long 
before  the  tree  has  passed  its  prime.  But  in  all  species  the 
greatest  vigor  in  height  growth  comes  in  the  first  half  or 
third  of  its  existence.  When  about  completed,  the  stand 
is  composed  of  a  much  reduced  number  of  trees,  whose 
crowns  are  well  developed  and  throw  a  dense  shade.  There 
is  almost  no  underbrush  and  the  litter  on  the  forest  floor 
has  accumulated  and  decayed  until  it  forms  a  heavy  layer 
of  humus  partly  blended  with  the  soil  below. 

The  Differentiation  of  Crown  Classes.— During  this 
early  struggle,  culminating  with  the  completion  of  rapid 
height  growth,  the  trees  have  not  grown  at  the  same  rate 
in  either  height  or  diameter.  A  slight  advantage  at  the 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  21 

start,  either  in  age,  or  location,  enables  some  trees  to  take 
the  lead.  This  once  obtained  gives  the  tree  a  start  over 
its  slower  and  smaller  rivals  which  it  never  loses  until  with 
increasing  size  and  spread  of  crown  it  comes  into  competi- 
tion with  trees  of  its  own  class,  when  the  struggle  begins 
again;  and  again  the  larger  and  thriftier  tree  is  bound  to 
win.  Those  overtopped  in  growth,  first  endeavor  at  all 
costs  to  maintain  their  height  growth,  but  lose  most  of  their 
side  branches  and  become  much  reduced  in  size  of  crown 
with  a  total  height  only  slightly  less  than  the  stronger  trees. 
Later  on,  they  lose  more  and  more  ground  and  the  crowns 
of  the  neighboring  trees  begin  to  close  above  them.  Soon 
afterwards  these  trees  die  from  loss  of  light.  Thus  we  find 
the  trees  in  an  even-aged  stand  classified  by  their  crowns, 
which  are  a  sure  indication  of  the  thrift  and  prospects  of 
the  tree,  Those  trees  which  overtop  their  neighbors  in 
height  and  have  a  well-developed  crown,  are  known  as  dom- 
inant trees.  The  crowded  trees  which  still  maintain  their 
struggle  for  light  by  keeping  up  their  height  growth,  are 
the  intermediate  class.  The  overtopped  trees  which  are 
about  to  die  are  in  the  suppressed  class.  It  almost  never 
happens  that  an  intermediate  or  suppressed  tree  becomes 
dominant  in  such  a  stand.  This  could  occur  only  by  the 
destruction  of  the  dominant  trees  which  are  crowding  it. 
Since  the  numbers  constantly  fall  off,  it  is  always  the  in- 
termediate and  suppressed  trees  that  disappear.  Trees  are 
continually  dropping  out  of  the  dominant  class  into  the 
classes  below,  as  they  fail  to  keep  up  their  initial  advan- 
tage. 

The  Old  Age  of  a  Stand. — From  the  period  when  height 
growth  ceases,  the  history  of  the  stand  is  quite  different. 
Trees  continue  to  drop  out,  but  most  of  those  remaining 
are  able  to  hold  their  own  and  may  be  regarded  as  victors 
in  the  struggle  for  existence.  The  trees  as  they  grow  older 
need  more  light,  and  the  branches  in  the  lower  crowns  die 
faster.  The  crown  becomes  thinner  and  when  a  tree  dies 


v 


22  FORESTRY 

or  is  destroyed  the  neighboring  trees  no  longer  spread  out 
eagerly  to  close  the  gap  as  before.  Sunlight  gets  in  and  fil- 
ters through  to  the  ground,  which  begins  to  dry  out.  Shrubs 
and  grass  come  in  again  and  with  them,  groups  and  patch- 
es of  young  tree  seedlings.  If  the  old  timber  is  not  cut,  it 
will  disappear  in  time,  either  suddenly  by  being  blown 
down,  or  gradually  by  loss  from  decay.  The  older  the  trees 
get,  the  less  able  they  are  to  resist  the  attacks  of  fungi, 
and  the  structure  of  the  trunk  becomes  finally  so  weakened 
by  rot,  both  in  the  bole  and  in  the  stump  and  upper  roots, 
that  it  falls  or  is  blown  down.  It  is  in  this  decadent  half 
of  the  life  of  the  stand  that  the  forest  will  reproduce  itself 
naturally. 

These  laws  of  development  best  illustrated  in  the  case 
chosen,  where  stands  are  of  a  single  species  and  even-aged, 
apply  to  almost  all  forms  of  forests,  but  are  not  always  so 
evident.  Under  natural  conditions,  large  clearings,  on  which 
stands  of  even  age  ^hould  spring  up,  occur  only  through 
fire,  or  extensive  windfalls.  If  a  stand  of  any  species  were 
left  entirely  undisturbed  by  such  agencies,  the  old  trees 
would  drop  out  one  by  one  or  in  small  groups,  and  their 
places  be  taken  by  groups  of  either  the  same  or  different 
species.  Finally  the  forest  would  be  broken  up  into  small 
groups  of  trees  of  different  ages  and  sizes.  The  conditions 
are  further  modified  by  the  large  number  of  species  which 
may  be  competing  for  space  in  the  same  stand.  Yet  the 
two  laws,  that  of  the  reduction  of  numbers  with  growth 
in  height  and  that  of  the  survival  of  the  most  vigorous  trees, 
will  always  apply,  no  matter  what  the  conditions. 

Silvical  Characteristics  of  Tree  Species. — Both  the 
form  and  the  composition  of  a  forest  will  depend,  first, 
upon  the  quality  of  the  site  and  its  fitness  for  tree  growth; 
secondly,  upon  the  tree  species  in  the  region  and  their 
needs  and,  thirdly,  upon  the  history  of  the  forest  in  that 
locality,  such  as  the  occurrence  of  fires,  insect  ravages  or 
other  destructive  incidents. 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  23 

Effect  of  Heat  on  Distribution  of  Trees.— The  site  or  lo- 
cality determines  the  species  of  trees  which  can  grow  there. 
The  climate  has  a  profound  effect  upon  the  range  of  tree 
species.  %  The  total  amount  of  heat  in  the  growing  season 
diminishes  with  increasing  latitude  and  with  elevation. 
The  effect  of  increased  altitude  on  the  total  heat  is  espe- 
cially noticeable  and  in  mountain  ranges  is  chiefly  respon- 
sible for  the  distribution  of  trees  in  distinct  zones,  corre- 
sponding to  the  altitude.  Species  which  grow  well  in  a 
climate  with  a  certain  average  and  total  heat,  would  per- 
ish in  a  warmer  or  colder  climate.  The  northerly  range 
of  a  species  is  limited  by  its  ability  to  withstand  frost  and 
to  ripen  its  wood  in  the  growing  season.  Early  fall  frosts 
destroy  the  shoots  of  slow  maturing  species  and  extreme 
winter  cold  combined  with  evaporation  and  the  deep  freez- 
ing of  the  soil  causes  the  death  of  species  not  acclimated 
to  such  conditions.  The  southern  range  of  northern  species 
is  limited  by  excessive  heat  which  stimulates  the  activities 
of  the  plant  beyond  its  natural  capacity,  and  causes  rapid 
production  of  weak  and  coarse  wood,  and  early  decay  and 
death.  *But  the  real  factors  which  limit  the  range  of  a  spe- 
cies are  those  which  prevent  its  natural  reproduction. 
Seedlings  are  always  more  sensitive  to  extremes  of  heat, 
cold  and  drought  than  mature  trees.  So  it  often  happens 
that  if  trees  are  artificially  planted  and  protected  they 
may  grow  much  farther  north  or  south  than  their  natural 
range.  But  even  then  they  will  not  be  as  healthy  and  vig- 
orous as  when  they  grow  within  the  range  to  which  they 
are  acclimated.  So  ingrained  are  these  characteristics  of 
climatic  requirements  that  it  is  not  possible  for  a  species 
to  thrive  much  beyond  its  natural  range,  and  the  acclima- 
tization of  a  tree  species  involving  a  change  in  the  heat 
requirements  of  the  species,  has  never  been  successfully 
accomplished.  Seeds  or  seedlings  may  be  brought  long  dis- 
tances and  thrive,  as  for  instance  natives  of  Japan  such  as 
the  Ginkgo  tree,  which  grows  well  on  our  eastern  coast, 


24  FORESTRY 

and  the  white  pine  which  is  proving  one  of  the  best  trees 
for  planting  in  Germany.  But  in  these  cases  the  amount 
of  heat  is  very  similar  in  each  locality  and  there  is  no  real 
change  in  the  demands  of  the  species  itself. 

The  local  range  of  a  species  is  affected  by  heat,  chiefly 
in  a  mountainous  country  not  only  through  altitude,  but  by 
the  difference  in  the  exposure  on*  slopes  facing  to  different 
points  of  the  compass.  *A  south  or  southwest  slope  is  much 
warmer  than  a  north  or  northeast  exposure.  Toward  the 
northern  portion  of  its  range,  a  species  will  favor  south 
slopes  and  low  altitudes  while  at  the  southern  limit  it  will 
only  be  found  on  the  north  slopes  and  toward  the  tops  of 
the  mountains. 

Examples  of  such  distribution  are  found  in  the  pines  of 
the  United  States.  The  white  pine  is  normally  limited  to 
the  Lake  States,  Pennsylvania  and  New  England,  but  in  the 
Appalachian  range  it  extends  southward  into  North  Caro- 
lina where  on  the  high  summits  of  the  great  Smoky  Moun- 
tains at  5,000  feet  elevation  it  comprises  over  50  per  cent 
of  the  stand  in  some  places.  On  the  other  hand  even  the 
most  hardy  of  the  southern  yellow  pines,  the  shortleaf ,  con- 
fines itself  to  the  plains  and  foothills,  and  is  never  found 
further  north  than  New  Jersey,  while  the  longleaf  pine 
is  found  largely  below  Virginia,  and  its  cousin,  the  Cuban  , 
pine,  is  only  met  with  along  the  gulf  coast. 

Soil  Moisture  and  its  Relation  to  the  Life  of  Trees.— 
While  heat  fixes  the  general  range  of  a  tree,  the  demand 
for  moisture  in  the  soil  has  a  far  greater  influence  locally 
in  determining  which  of  several  different  species  will  sur-^ 
vive  in  a  struggle.  Water  in  the  soil  not  only  enables  the' 
tree  to  dissolve,  with  the  aid  of  weak  solutions  of  acids, 
the  plant  food  it  needs,  and  absorb  it  by  osmosis  into  the 
root  cells,  from  which  it  is  slowly  conducted  upward  until 
it  finally  reaches  the  leaves,  but  it  is  vitally  necessary  to 
the  existence  and  functions  of  the  leaves  themselves.  The 
constant  supply  of  water  makes  good  the  loss  by  transpira- 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  25 

tion  from  the  pores  or  stomata  and  evaporation  through  the 
cuticle.  It  enables  the  green  and  delicate  tissues  of  the 
leaf  to  maintain  their  rigidity.  The  loss  of  too  much  water 
is  shown  by  wilting,  and  if  not  supplied,  the  leaves  would 
die.  The  elaboration  of  food  from  the  carbon  dioxide  of 
the  air  by  the  aid  of  the  chlorophyll  bodies  requires  water, 
and  the  food  or  carbohydrates  thus  formed  as  starch  is 
redissolved  for  transportation  in  solution  to  other  portions 
of  the  tree  where  growth  of  wood  occurs.  Thus  the  water 
supply  of  the  roots  is  of  the  first  importance.  There  can 
be  too  much  water  in  the  soil.  Roots  need  air  as  well  as 
water,  and  cannot  perform  their' functions  properly  in  a 
soil  constantly  below  the  water  level. 

The  Characteristics  of  Soils  Affecting  Soil  Moisture. — 
Swampy  soils  are  not  as  favorable  for  trees  as  better 
drained  soils.  The  most  favorable  sites  are  the  well- 
drained  loamy  soils  which  will  hold  a  large  amount  of  water 
by  capillary  attraction,  and  are  elevated  far  enough  above 
the  level  of  the  underground  water  table  so  that  the  roots 
at  the  same  time  have  plenty  of  air.  The  mechanical  com- 
position of  soils  is  important,  since  it  determines  very  large- 
ly their  behavior  toward  water.  The  larger  the  soil  par- 
ticles the  less  water  the  soil  will  hold.  The  series  used  in 
such  soil  classifications  is  gravel,  sand,  loam,  silt  and  clay. 
There  is  a  disadvantage  in  a  clay  soil  since  the  particles 
are  so  finely  divided  that  the  water  is  held  tenaciously  and 
the  soil  remains  cold  and  wet,  while  if  it  does  dry  out  it 
bakes  hard  and  cracks.  Loamy  soils,  with  particles  about 
midway  in  size  between  sand  and  clay,  allow  a  free  move- 
ment of  water,  retain  it  in  sufficient  quantities  for  tree 
growth  and  allow  a  proper  circulation  of  air. 

\The  depth  of  the  soil  of  course  affects  its  moisture  hold- 
ing capacity.  A  shallow  soil  over  a  rocky  ledge  is  a  dry 
soil  since  there  is  no  storage  room  for  water.  But  a  very 
deep  soil,  if  sandy,  may  be  still  drier,  since  the  water  rap- 
idly percolates  through  it  to  depths  where  even  tree  roots 


26  FORESTRY 

cannot  follow  it.  Deep  accumulations  of  silt,  washed  down 
from  slopes  into  gullies  or  on  flat  benches,  and  supplied  with 
underground  seepage  from  above,  make  ideal  conditions  of 
soil  moisture,  since  the  storage  room  for  water  is  large,  the 
supply  is  continuous  and  the  drainage  prevents  too  great 
a  surplus.  Aside  from  the  depth  and  consistency  of  the 
soil,  and  the  amount  of  rainfall  it  receives,  the  water  con- 
tent is  determined  by  the  topography  and  the  drainage.  If 
the  water  has  no  chance  to  run  off  or  seep  away  under- 
ground, swamps  are  formed,  in  which  the  water  stands  con- 
stantly at  or  near  the  same  level,  filling  all  the  pores  and 
drowning  the  soil  by  exclusion  of  air.  In  other  places  un- 
derground water  comes  to  the  surface,  making  marshy 
spots,  even  on  hillsides.  The  water  in  a  swamp  may  not 
necessarily  overflow  the  surface  at  all  times,  but  the  dis- 
tance down  to  the  average  water  table  will  have  a  profound 
influence  on  the  character  of  the  swamp  vegetation. 

The  Effect  of  Soil  Moisture  on  Competition  of  Species. 
—The  difference  in  the  requirements  of  tree  species  for 
moisture  is  very  marked.  Some  distinctly  prefer  swampy 
soils,  and  have  adapted  themselves  to  them.  The  Bald 
Cypress  of  the  south  has  pushed  this  adaptation  so  far  that 
it  develops  special  growths  on  its  roots  in  the  form  of  up- 
right conical  excrescences  known  as  knees,  through  which 
the  roots  receive  the  necessary  air.  The  white  cedar  and 
tamarack  of  the  Lake  States  are  swamp  trees.  But  most  of 
these  species  are  found  to  grow  much  more  rapidly  when 
they  obtain  a  foothold  on  soil  which  is  elevated  above  the 
level  of  the  swamp.  They  have  undoubtedly  been  forced 
to  occupy  these  wet  soils  by  their  inability  to  cope  with 
species  better  able  to  fight  for  room  on  well-drained  soils. 
Having  become  inured  to  an  excess  of  moisture  they  would 
probably  suffer  severely  from  drought  if  they  should  acci- 
dentally get  started  on  soil  not  supplied  with  constant  un- 
derground moisture. 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  27 

At  the  other  extreme  we  find  trees  occupying  soils  so 
dry  that  many  species  are  killed  by  drought  and  cannot 
grow  in  such  places.  On  the  dry,  rocky  ledges  in  eastern 
states  the  red  cedar  finds  its  natural  habitat,  while  on  the 
dry,  deep  sands  of  the  Lake  States  the  Jack  pine  has  a  clear 
field  against  all  competitors.  Other  species  like  Norway 
pine  and  scarlet  oak,  come  in  on  soils  too  dry  for  white  pine 
which,  in  turn,  needs  less  moisture  than  hard  maple.  Spe- 
cies which  grow  only  in  dry  soils  are  almost  never  found 
in  swamps.  Norway  pine,  for  instance,  will  not  grow  where 
water  stands  in  the  soil.  They  are  affected  by  rot  even 
when  they  grow  in  moist  ground.  It  is  evident,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  true  swamp  species,  that  they  are  so  accus- 
tomed to  their  habitat  that  a  permanent  change  in  the 
water  content  does  not  agree  with  them.  They  can  no  more 
stand  excessive  moisture  than  swamp  trees  can  stand  dry 
conditions.  *But  on  the  best  sites,  well-drained  soils  with 
a  good  supply  of  moisture,  most  of  these  hardy  trees  will 
do  much  better  than  on  their  usual  site  and  grow  faster 
and  larger. 

The  only  reason  that  they  are  not  found  on  better  soils 
is  that  other  species  are  stronger  and  crowd  them  off,  leav- 
ing them  the  alternative  of  dying  or  taking  the  poorer  sites. 

Strong  species,  then,  are  those  that  can  capture  the  most 
desirable  soils  and  secure  for  themselves  the  best  and  most 
uniform  supply  of  soil  moisture.  These  species  are  usually 
found  to  be  hardwoods,  such  as  the  hard  maple,  chestnut, 
white  oaks  and  hickories. 

The  Struggle  for  Light  as  Affecting  Competition  of  Spe- 
cies.—But  in  what  does  the  strength  of  such  species  con- 
sist? 

The  ability  to  capture  soil  moisture  simply  means  that 
the  tree  from  some  quality  or  other,  is  able  to  grow  faster 
than  others — or  survive  its  competitors.  Where  there  is 
enough  moisture  for  all,  it  is  not  moisture  but  other  factors 


28  FORESTRY 

which  decide  the  contest.  Chief  of  these  is  the  struggle 
for  light. 

A  species  may  secure  its  foothold  and  light  in  one  of 
three  ways.  It  may  grow  faster  than  others,  in  which  case 
with  an  even  start,  it  is  sure  to  win  for  the  time  being.  It 
may  get  along  with  less  light  than  others.  Or  by  reason 
of  small  windblown  seeds,  it  may  be  able  to  distribute  its 
seeds  in  accidental  openings  in  advance  of  other  species. 
All  these  methods  have  their  advantages.  The  kind  which 
relies  on  its  ability  to  grow  rapidly  is  not  sure  of  surviv- 
ing beyond  a  single  generation.  The  critical  time  comes 
in  the  reproduction  and  the  establishment  of  seedlings.  If 
the  competing  species,  which  needs  less  light,  has  come  in 
under  the  shade  of  the  original  stand,  or  along  with  it,  the 
seedlings  of  the  first  species  will  be  unable  to  grow  in  this 
shade,  while  those  of  the  other  will  easily  survive.  The  old 
trees  might  die  with  no  survivors,  and  the  site  will  belong 
to  the  competitor. 

Tolerance. — This  ability  to  grow  with  less  light  is 
known  as  tolerance.  Just  as  in  the  case  of  moisture,  it  is 
not  beneficial  to  be  deprived  of  light,  but  the  less  of  it  a 
tree  needs,  the  greater  advantage  it  has  in  the  struggle  for 
existence.  Trees  needing  a  great  deal  of  light  are  intol- 
erant. 

The  tolerance  or  light  requirements  of  different  species 
are  hereditary,  and  species  may  be  classed  according  to 
their  relative  ability  to  endure  shade.  But  it  is  not  true 
that  the  same  species  always  requires  the  same  amount  of 
light  for  vigorous  growth.  All  other  factors  which  in- 
crease the  vigor  of  a  tree  tend  to  decrease  the  need  of  light. 
For  this  reason  we  find  that  young  trees  are  more  tolerant 
than  old,  the  need  for  light  steadily  increasing  as  the  tree 
grows  older.  The  life  vigor  of  a  plant  is  largest  when  it 
is  a  seedling — it  will  do  more  on  less  food  and  less  light 
than  at  any  later  time.  This  conforms  to  the  general  laws 
of  life  development  of  all  animals  and  plants.  The  chance 


B— in— n 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  29 

of  survival  of  the  seedling  is  increased  by  its  tolerance,  and 
later  in  life  with  increasing  need  of  light,  the  increased 
size  gives  it  the  chance  to  secure  this  light.  Tolerance  is 
also  increased  by  favorable  sites.  If  a  species  is  growing 
in  a  climate  whose  temperature  is  most  favorable  to  it, 
the  vigor  of  growth  is  at  its  maximum  and  it  needs  less 
light  than  it  does  when  growing  at  the  extreme  limit  of  its 
range.  The  relative  tolerance  of  two  species,  therefore, 
may  not  be  the  same  in  different  regions,  for  a  tree  is  al- 
ways more  vigorous  when  near  the  center  of  its  range.  In 
spite  of  these  differences,  tolerance  is  so  marked  a  charac- 
teristic of  different  species  that  the  trees  in  any  region  may 
be  roughly  classified  in  order  of  their  needs  for  light. 

A  general  list,  given  by  Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  for  northern 
trees,  will  illustrate  such  classification.  The  most  intol- 
lerant  trees,  or  those  needing  the  most  light  are  given  first, 
and  the  trees  grouped  together  are  of  nearly  equal  degrees 
of  tolerance. 


Aspen 
Cottonwood 
Black  Locust 
Honey  Locust 


Black  Oak 
Pitch  Pine 


Soft  Maple 
White  Pine 
Hickory 
White  Oak 


r  Sugar  Maple 
Beech 
Balsam  Mr 
Spruce 
Hemlock 


Norway  Pine 

Tulip  Poplar 

Elm 

Basswood 

White  Birch 

Black  Cherry 

Walnut 

Chestnut 

This  is  a  fairly  good  list;  since  it  does  not  attempt  to 
state  which  of  two  similar  species  is  the  most  tolerant. 


30  FORESTRY 

A  very  tolerant  tree  like  the  beech,  hard  maple,  or 
spruce,  will  start  as  a  seedling  tinder  heavy  shade  and 
grow  slowly,  in  a  state  of  suppression  for  many  years 
under  the  old  trees.  Finally,  the  old  timber  falls  or  dies 
and  the  small  tree  takes  on  new  vigor  and  grows  as  rap- 
idly as  if  it  had  never  been  held  back  in  early  youth.  This 
capacity  for  survival  and  complete  recovery  from  long  pe- 
riods of  shading  and  suppression  give  the  tolerant  trees 
their  chief  weapon  of  attack  in  the  struggle  for  moist 
sites. 

Indications  of  Tolerance  in  the  Form  of  Trees. — The 
demands  of  a  tree  for  light  are  indicated  by  its  form  and 
crown.  The  best  place  to  study  tolerance  is  in  crowded 
stands,  where  the  struggle  for  light  is  most  severe.  Tol- 
erant trees  may  be  recognized  first,  by  their  dense  crowns, 
with  many  successive  layers  of  leaves,  most  of  which  are 
partially  shaded;  secondly,  by  their  presence  under  the 
shade  of  other  trees  and  their  survival  in  such  situations. 
Intolerant  trees  will  have  leaves  only  on  the  outer  por- 
tions of  the  crown,  arranged  so  that  each  leaf  gets  plenty 
of  light,  and  small  trees  will  be  entirely  absent  from  shad- 
ed places.  It  follows,  too,  that  the  more  intolerant  a  tree 
is,  the  shorter  will  be  its  length  of  crown  compared  with 
a  more  tolerant  tree. 

The  Formation  of  Forests  of  Tolerant  Versus  Intoler- 
ant Trees. — If  a  tree  is  not  only  tolerant  but  capable  of 
living  to  a  great  age  and  attaining  large  sizes,  it  is  well 
equipped  to  survive.  In  some  sections,  forests  are  almost 
never  destroyed  over  large  areas  at  once,  either  by  fire 
or  wind.  Such  a  region  is  seen  in  portions  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks.  It  is  here  that  extremely  tolerant  trees  like  the 
hard  maple,  beech  and  spruce  have  taken  absolute  pos- 
session of  the  forest,  forming  a  dense  stand  composed  of 
trees  of  all  ages  and  sizes.  This  is  the  final  result  of  such 
a  struggle  when  not  interfered  with  by  the  elements  of 
destruction.  But  to  a  much  greater  degree  and  over  much 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  31 

wider  areas,  our  forests  are  either  periodically  burned 
up  or  blown  down.  This  may  not  occur  in  the  same  place 
oftener  than  once  every  100  years,  but  since  the  life  of 
most  trees  is  much  longer  than  this,  it  gives  many  species 
a  chance  to  perpetuate  themselves  indefinitely  which  would 
otherwise  be  crowded  out  by  more  tolerant  trees.  So 
widespread  is  this  condition,  that  many  of  our  most  val- 
uable timber  trees,  especially  the  pines,  are  found  over 
wide  areas  in  stands  which  are  practically  even-aged,  and 
must  therefore  have  come  up  after  such  natural  clear- 
ings. 

"  Two  things,  then,  favor  intolerant  species:  their  ra- 
pidity of  height  growth,  and  their  ability  to  distribute  seed 
to  great  distances.    Some  tolerant  trees  can  also  distrib- 
ute their  seed  in  the  wind,  as  hemlock.       But  this  tree 
grows  very  slowly  in  height.    Take  the  case  of  white  pine 
and  hemlock  forests.    In  a  windfall,  the  seeds  of  the  white 
pine  and  hemlock  get  a  start,  probably  in  company  with 
aspen  and  white  birch — if  any  seed  trees  of  these  species 
are  near,    The  aspen  and  birch  grow  rapidly  and  the  pine, 
which  is  somewhat  tolerant,  holds  its  own  in  the  light 
shade  cast  by  these  species,  or  fills  the  openings  in  the 
stand.     The  hemlock  seed  is  also  scattered  but  on  the 
bare  soil  these  seedlings  are  apt  to  dry  out  and  die,  or 
fail  to  take  root  at  all.    But  as  soon  as  there  is  some  shade 
cast,  the  moisture  in  the  soil  increases  and  hemlock  seed- 
lings take  root.     Long  before  they  reach  any  size,  the 
poplars  are  almost  mature,  and  the  pine  is  thrifty  and  mak- 
ing rapid  growth.      At  80  years  the  aspen  begins  to  die 
out.    It  has  reached  its  old  age  and  the  pine  is  overtop- 
ping it.    At  120  years  the  white  birch  follows  the  aspen, 
leaving  the  white  pine  in  possession,  with  an  understory 
of  hemlock  now  attaining  a  fair  size.    These  two  species 
live  together  until  they  both  reach  old  age.    Should  the 
pine  be  cut  out,  the  hemlock  will  usually  die  from  undue 
exposure  to  drought.    If  the  forest  is  burned,  the  whole 


32  FORESTRY 

process  is  repeated.  But  should  the  soil  be  rich,  and  noth- 
ing happen  to  the  stand,  the  hemlock,  and  probably  cer- 
tain species  of  hardwood,  would  eventually  survive  the 
pine,  which  could  not  come  in  as  seedlings  in  their  shade. 
There  are  other  tolerant  species  which  do  not  do  as  well 
as  the  hemlock  in  holding  their  own,  but  exist  usually 
as  a  secondary  tree  under  the  crowns  of  more  rapidly 
growing  and  less  tolerant  species.  Such  trees  are  the 
dogwood,  and  hornbeam,  and  in  the  Lake  States,  the  bal- 
sam fir  under  white  pine. 

Duration  of  Life  of  Trees.— Once  established,  a  spe- 
cies whether  tolerant  or  intolerant,  has  a  great  advantage 
if  it  is  long  lived.  Short  lived  trees  will  die  out  of  a 
stand,  leaving  the  more  enduring  kinds  in  control.  The 
duration  of  life  of  different  species  varies  from  70  to  80 
years  in  the  case  of  Jack  pine  and  aspen,  or  even  less, 
up  to  the  almost  miraculous  ages  attained  by  the  sequoias, 
or  big  trees  of  California,  which  live  to  be  over  2,000  years 
old.  It  is  hard  to  explain  these  differences,  but  they  are 
specific,  and  as  much  a  part  of  the  tree's  characteristics 
as  its  growth  and  tolerance.  With  old  age,  a  tree  simply 
loses  vitality.  The  power  to  heal  up  wounds  in  the  bark 
is  lost.  The  roots  seem  to  lose  their  grasp  of  the  soil 
in  some  species  and  are  no  longer  able  to  resist  the  pres- 
sure of  strong  winds  on  the  large  and  heavy  body  of  the 
tree.  Sometimes  insect  enemies  in  the  form  of  bark  beetles 
attack  these  old  trees  and  kill  them.  But  more  often  the 
spores  of  fungi  enter  through  open  knot  holes  or  broken 
limbs,  or  upwards  through  the  roots,  and  the  body  of  the 
tree  rots  out  until  the  strength  is  gone.  Ultimately  the 
tree  is  blown  over.  Old  woodsmen  have  often  observed 
the  peculiar  phenomenon  of  a  tree  tottering  to  its  fall  on  a 
still  day,  with  apparently  no  reason  for  causing  the  fall 
at  that  particular  moment.  The  longest  lived  trees  are 
apt  to  be  rather  slow  in  growth.  White  oak  which  reaches 
greater  age  than  other  oaks,  does  not  compete  with  them 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  33 

in  height  growth,  but  by  its  tough  wood  and  resistance 
to  decay,  it  survives  them.  It  is,  therefore,  more  numer- 
ous in  old  virgin  forests  than  in  those  which  have  been 
cut  heavily  and  grown  up  to  second  growth  since  such 
a  condition  favors  the  more  rapidly  growing  oaks  which 
are  shorter  lived. 

Reproduction  of  Trees  and  Stands.  The  Seed. — The 
most  important  feature  of  the  struggle  of  species,  is  the 
ability  of  the  trees  to  reproduce  themselves,  and  the  con- 
ditions affecting  reproduction  determine  the  composition 
of  a  stand.  Seeds  are  borne  by  some  species  every  year 
abundantly.  Such  trees  are  always  ready  to  seize  an  op- 
portunity if  offered.  Others  only  produce  seed  at  inter- 
vals of  two  to  seven  years.  Many  conifers  have  this  habit. 
Spruce  seed  trees  are  five  to  seven  years  apart.  The  seed 
borne  in  the  intervening  years  is  so  small  in  quantity  that 
it  is  usually  all  destroyed  by  birds,  animals  or  insects. 
In  seed  years  the  abundance  of  the  seed  insures  a  sur- 
plus over  the  ordinary  ravages  of  such  pests,  and  a  crop 
of  seedlings,  if  conditions  favor  them. 

Distribution  of  Seed. — In  the  distribution  of  seed,  the 
light  wind  blown  seeds  of  the  aspen  will  travel  for  miles. 
As  each  seed  is  supported  by  a  thistle-down  tuft  of  hairs, 
a  few  trees  will  seed  up  large  areas.  This  is  the  chief  ad- 
vantage which  such  a  species  possesses.  All  conifers  have 
wind  blown  seeds,  and  the  distance  to  which  they  will 
blow  depends  on  the  lightness  of  the  seed,  the  size  of  the 
wing,  and  the  position  of  the  tree  and  strength  of  the  wind. 
Spruce  seeds  will  travel  half  a  mile  down  hill.  But  the 
heavy  seed  of  the  longleaf  pine  will  only  fly  to  a  distance 
about  equal  to  the  height  of  the  tree.  Many  hardwoods 
— as  maples,  elms  and  birches,  have  winged  seeds,  and  can 
capture  seed  spots  at  varying  distances  from  the  parent 
tree. 

Of  the  trees  which  do  not  depend  on  the  wind,  some 
produce  berries  or  fruit,  which  is  eaten  by  animals  and 


34  FORESTRY 

birds  and  may  be  carried  long  distances,  escaping  unin- 
jured by  the  digestive  processes  and  ready  to  germinate. 
Red  cedar  berries  will  not  germinate  at  all  until  submitted 
to  such  a  process.  The  fire  cherry  of  the  Lake  States, 
which  springs  up  abundantly  on  old  burns  is  literally  plant- 
ed by  robins  and  other  birds.  The  nut  trees  do  not  have 
this  advantage.  Occasionally  squirrels  carry  nuts  into 
an  opening  and  bury  them.  Almost  always,  these  animals, 
in  a  good  seed  year,  will  plant  large  numbers  of  acorns 
and  other  nuts  and  never  return  for  them.  But  the  rapid 
reproduction  of  large  spaces  at  any  considerable  distance 
from  the  old  trees  cannot  be  depended  on  in  the  case  of  nut 
bearing  trees. 

The  Extension  of  the  Forest  onto  Abandoned  Pastures. 
— The  growth  occurring  on  abandoned  pastures  in  New 
England  affords  the  basis  for  an  interesting  study.  Grass 
usually  forms  a  dense  sod  at  first  drying  out  the  surface 
and  preventing  the  germination  of  tree  seeds.  The  first 
species  to  get  started  are  the  red  cedar,  carried  in  by  birds, 
and  the  grey  birch,  blown  by  the  wind.  Both  trees  need 
full  sunlight  and  can  spring  up  in  dry  places.  It  takes 
ten  to  forty  years  to  form  a  thick  stand  of  these  trees. 
But  the  shade  cast  by  them  finally  kills  out  the  grass 
and  the  seeds  of  occasional  oaks  or  chestnuts  are  carried 
in  by  the  rodents,  and  grow  rapidly,  forming  bushy  crowns. 
These  trees  will  then,  after  50  or  60  years,  begin  to  seed 
up  the  ground  about  them.  Dogwood,  black  cherry  and 
others  sometimes  get  started.  But  it  is  all  a  matter  of 
accident,  how  long  it  takes  for  the  stand  to  work  back 
to  its  natural  form,  in  which  the  forest  is  composed,  not 
of  weak  slow  growing, 'intolerant  species  like  cedar,  but 
of  the  strong  species  which  originally  held  possession.  The 
great  extension  of  the  cedar  over  such  old  pastures  shows 
how  quickly  a  species  takes  advantage  of  opportunities 
afforded  by  clearings  either  natural  or  artificial,  when  it 
relies  more  on  seed  distribution  than  on  either  growth 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  35 

or  tolerance.  Such  species  are  forever  on  the  move.  As- 
pen almost  never  succeeds  itself,  unless  the  old  stand  of 
aspen  is  burned  off.  In  the  spruce  regions,  much  of  the 
spruce  on  mountain  slopes  gets  started  under  aspen  and 
birch  which  are  the  first  trees  to  spring  up  on  burns,  and 
this  birch  and  aspen  grows  old  and  dies,  leaving  the  young 
spruce,  almost  as  old  as  they  are,  to  live  for  200  years 
longer.  But  in  the  meantime  another  burn  or  blow  down 
has  occurred  within  a  mile  or  two,  and  is  at  once  seeded 
up  to  aspen  from  the  first  stand. 

The  Seed  Bed  and  the  Seedling. — Many  times  we  find 
seed  trees  and  seed,  but  very  few  seedlings.  There  is 
always  a  reason  for  this  to  be  found  in  the  condition  of 
the  seed  bed.  The  seed  will  not  germinate  without  mois- 
ture, and  it  must  be  able  to  take  root.  Very  dry  soils, 
exposed  to  the  sun,  prevent  the  starting  of  tender  seed- 
lings like  hemlock.  Hard-baked  soils  make  it  impossible 
for  the  root  to  penetrate,  and  we  find  acorns  with  a  long 
radicle,  rolling  about  on  the  surface,  and  soon  drying  up, 
while  amongst  leaf  litter  they  find  easy  access  to  the  soil. 
But  pine  seeds  cannot  grow  at  all  on  leaf  litter,  and  very 
seldom  in  grass,  which  holds  the  seed  up  off  the  soil  and 
dries  it  out.  So  it  is  an  accepted  fact  that  for  most  pines 
we  must  burn  the  ground  in  order  to  get  good  reproduc- 
tion of  seedlings.  Some  such  considerations  always  ex- 
plain the  lack  of  seedlings  if  seed  is  present.  But  the  mere 
starting  of  seedlings  does  not  insure  their  survival.  Here 
is  where  the  needs  of  the  species  for  light  come  into  play. 
Many  more  seedlings  die  for  lack  of  light  under  old  trees, 
than  survive.  A  seedling  will  live  a  year  or  two  in  shade, 
but  if  this  shade  continues,  it  will  succumb.  Trees  be- 
gin to  bear  seed  at  ages  varying  from  6  to  7  years  in  the 
case  of  Jack  pine  to  50  and  60  years  and  the  seed  is  al- 
ways borne  most  abundantly  by  the  trees  with  the  great- 
est opportunity  of  distributing  it  to  good  advantage — the 
open  grown  trees  or  those  on  the  edges  of  stands,  or  over- 


36  FOEESTEY 

topping  the  stand.  In  this  way,  the  species  extends  its 
territory. 

But  the  seed  which  falls  under  the  old  trees,  while 
it  may  germinate  and  form  seedlings,  usually  requires 
more  light  to  grow  than  it  receives.  A  full  stand  of  any 
species  throws  too  dense  a  shade  for  its  own  seedlings, 
although  the  seedlings  of  a  more  tolerant  species  may  grow 
there  without  difficulty.  So  that  with  most  intolerant 
trees,  the  forest  cannot  renew  itself  on  the  same  ground, 
until  it  begins  to  go  to  pieces  from  old  age,  and  we  will 
get  a  succession  of  crops  of  trees  of  an  even-aged  form. 

Reproduction  by  Sprouts. — The  production  of  seed  is 
not  the  only  way  in  Which  a  tree  can  renew  itself.  All 
hardwood  species,  if  cut  or  burned,  can  sprout  again  and 
these  sprouts  will  form  trees  almost  as  tall  and  large  as 
the  original  trees.  The  conifers,  as  pine,  spruce,  etc.,  can- 
not do  this,  and  with  them  a  fire  or  a  cutting  destroys 
the  trees,  and,  if  seedlings  are  not  already  growing  and 
survive,  it  puts  an  end  to  the  forest  for  the  time  being. 
But  with  the  sprouting  hardwoods,  it  takes  a  succession 
of  fires  to  completely  destroy  the  trees.  Some  hardwoods 
sprout  vigorously  and  to  a  great  age,  as  the  chestnut.  But 
most  of  them  lose  the  power  of  sprouting  when  they  reach 
middle  age,  from  70  to  120  years  old,  and  all  trees  sprout 
best  when  young.  Of  the  few  conifers  which  sprout,  the 
pitch  pine  of  the  Atlantic  coast  produces  the  longest  lived 
sprouts,  while  certain  western  forms  of  juniper  are  known 
to  survive  fires  by  sprouting. 

Sprouts  appear  in  greatest  numbers  from  the  base  of 
the  stump  next  the  ground,  or  root  collar.  If  trees  are 
cut  in  summer,  after  most  of  the  growth  for  the  year  is 
formed,  they  may  not  sprout  at  all,  since  at  this  period 
all  of  the  reserve  food  of  the  tree  has  been  used  up  in 
forming  new  growth,  and  there  is  nothing  upon  which  the 
roots  can  draw  to  put  forth  the  new  sprouts.  But  at  any 
time  after  the  tree  has  had  time  to  renew  this  reserve,  it  is 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  37 

safe  to  cut  it  for  sprouts.  The  best  season  is  from  late 
fall  till  before  the  growth  starts  in  the  spring.  The  stumps 
should  be  cut  low,  with  slanting  surfaces,  to  prevent  rapid 
decay.  A  great  many  sprouts  start,  their  number  being 
an  indication  of  the  vigor  of 'the  tree.  In  a  few  years  these 
are  reduced  by  natural  competition  to  8  or  10,  and  only 
two  or  three  will  mature  as  a  rule. 

%  Forest  Types. — To  sum  up,  the  composition  of  a  forest 
is  determined  by  the  conditions  of  heat,  exposure,  soil  and 
moisture;  by  the  hereditary  qualities  of  tree  species  which 
enable  them  to  compete  for  these  sites,  and  by  the  de- 
structive forces  of  nature  and  man  combined,  which  modify 
natural  conditions.  The  accidental  combinations  of  these 
three  elements  give  rise  to  the  infinite  variety  which  we 
find  in  our  woods.  But  as  a  rule  in  any  given  region, 
the  same  set  of  conditions  will  produce  the  same  kind  of 
forest.  There  will  be  certain  characteristic  associations 
of  species,  which  are  able  to  grow  together,  or  compete 
with  each  other.  These  associations  are  known  as  forest 
types,  and  are  sometimes  divided  into  permanent  types 
and  temporary  types.  Permanent  types  are  found  in  re«- 
gions  where  the  forest  is  never  destroyed  violently  by 
fire,  wind,  insects,  or  lumbering,  and  where,  during  many 
centuries,  the  struggle  has  gone  on  until  only  the  most 
enduring  species,  usually  very  tolerant,  have  survived. 
The  Adirondack  hardwoods,  of  beech,  hard  maple,  and  scat- 
tered spruce,  are  the  best  illustration.  The  forest  floor  is 
covered  with  an  accumulation  of  litter  and  humus  some- 
times two  feet  deep,  showing  entire  absence  of  fires,  and 
these  trees  seldom  blow  over  except  singly  here  and  there. 
Starting  with  such  a  type  we  might  construct  a  series,  in 
which  accidental  destruction  played  a  stronger  and  strong- 
er role — until  we  come  to  types  which  are  of  such  purely 
temporary  character  that  they  are  sure  to  be  succeeded  by 
other  species.  Following  the  so-called  permanent  types, 
come  the  types  formed  by  most  of  the  hardwoods,  such  as 


38  FORESTRY 

oaks  and  other  nut  trees.  These  trees  form  types  which 
are  more  or  less  subject  to  injuries,  and  may  vary  from 
century  to  century  in  composition,  but  still  will  maintain 
their  general  character.  The  great  hardwood  forests  of 
the  Appalachians  and  the  original  hardwoods  in  south- 
ern New  England  belonged  to  this  class.  Upon  the  best 
soils,  with  perfect  drainage  and  plenty  of  moisture,  we 
might  find  a  type  marked  by  white  oak,  beech,  hickories 
and  chestnut.  On  soils  a  little  more  moist,  and  sometimes 
too  wet,  these  species  would  be  handicapped,  and  weaker 
kinds  not  able  to  compete  in  growth  or  tolerance,  but 
capable  of  surviving  a  slight  excess  of  moisture  would 
form  a  type  differing  very  decidedly  in  composition  from 
the  first.  White  ash,  white  elm,  sour  gum,  red  maple  and 
others  would  form  such  a  type. 

Next  in  the  scale  of  permanence  would  come  types 
found  in  rather  dry  soils.  Such  soils  are  either  shallow 
or  loose  and  sandy,  and  in  either  case  they  are  exposed 
to  both  wind  and  fire  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  bet- 
ter soils.  Consequently,  fires  and  blow  downs  occur  as 
a  regular  feature.  The  species  best  adapted  to  such  sites 
are  the  pines,  and  we -find  all  sandy  soils  occupied  by  some 
species  of  pine,  if  the/  are  not  too  dry  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  pine  altogether,  as  in  deserts. 

Very  often  small  oaks  come  in  under  such  species  as 
white  pine  and,  owing  to  their  inability  to  sprout,  the  pines 
may  fail  to  renew  themselves  when  cut  or  burned.  This 
leaves  the  oaks,  which  grow  into  a  scrubby  forest,  and 
the  type  has  changed.  So  apt  io  this  to  happen  that  it  is 
a  common  belief  that  pine  will  not  succeed  itself.  Yet  it 
is  one  of  the  first  principles  of  forestry  that  the  trees 
which  will  thrive  best  in  any  locality  are  those  which  have 
grown  best  on  that  site  in  the  past.  Under  natural  condi- 
tions, if  fires  are  not  too  severe  or  widespread  and  pine 
seed  trees  survive,  pine  will  come  in  again  after  fire  or 
windfall,  as  at  first,  and  the  type  remains  the  same.  It 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  39 

is  a  temporary  type  only  because  reproduction  occurs  at 
irregular  intervals  depending  on  accidental  conditions,  and 
this  reproduction  may  not  be  of  the  original  species. 

The  types  which.,,  are  most  truly  temporary  are  those 
formed  by  short  lived;  species  with  seeds  wind  blown  or 
carried  by  birds,  and  which  cannot  hold  their  own  if  any 
other  species  can  reach  the  same  area  with  seeds.  For 
this  reason  cedar  in  old  pastures  or  aspen  stands  on  burned 
lands  are  true  temporary  types. 

Types  are  of  the  greatest  use  to  the  forester.  They  in- 
dicate the  quality  of  the  soil  and  the  kind  of  wood  materials 
which  it  will  produce,  and  determine  the  species  of  trees 
which  he  should  try  to  raise  in  the  future.  It  is  useless 
to  attempt  to  grow  trees  on  any  soil  which  is  not  suited 
to  the  demands  of  that  species,  and  there  are  always  kinds 
which  are  adapted  to  it,  and  will  make  as  good  growth 
as  the  site  permits.  No  greater  fallacy  exists  than  that 
any  tree  found  in  a  region  can  be  successfully  grown  for 
wood  products  on  any  site  in  the  region.  Mistakes  can 
be  made  which  will  not  become  evident  for  many  years, 
and  the  only  sure  guide  for  the  forester  in  planting  or  man- 
agement of  forests  is  the  evidence  constantly  before  his 
eyes  of  the  natural  types,  representing  the  survival  of 
the  fittest.  From  such  types  he  can  gain  the  knowledge 
necessary  to  decide  what  trees  to  plant  on  vacant  land, 
or  to  recognize  a  purely  temporary  type,  and  know  wheth- 
er a  better  species  might  not  grow  there  if  given  a  chance. 
For  instance,  white  pine  would  ordinarily  grow  well  in 
old  pastures,  if  planted  there,  when  for  lack  of  seed  trees, 
it  might  not  be  present  at  all  under  natural  condi- 
tions. 

The  Basis  for  Distinguishing  Types. — Types,  being  the 
result  of  a  number  of  influences,  are  not  usually  bounded 
by  sharp  lines,  except  where  artificially  produced  as  in 
clearing.  They  grade  into  one  another  and  their  bounda- 
ries are  somewhat  arbitrary.  Nor  is  the  composition  of  a 


40  FORESTRY 

type  constant  especially  when  several  species  grow  in  mix- 
ture. In  some  parts,  one  species  will  predominate,  while 
a  different  one  will  be  in  the  majority  in  an  adjoining  area. 
Out  of  a  constantly  changing  forest,  types  are  chosen  by 
deciding  upon  the  general  features  of  sufficient  importance 
to  justify  a  division  of  the  whole  forest  to  conform  with 
the  differences  noted.  Minor  differences  are  neglected. 
The  basis  for  such  divisions,  or  types,  are  usually  broad 
topographic  features  such  as  bottom  land,  swamp  land, 
south  slopes,  ridge  tops,  and  the  types  so  determined  are 
named  from  the  topography.  Where  the  type  depends 
less  on  topography,  and  more  on  accidental  distribution 
of  species,  it  is  named  from  the  prevailing  species  or  mix- 
ture, as  white  pine  type,  Jack  pine  type,  poplar  type.  Dif- 
ferences in  age  do  not  form  a  basis  for  making  different 
types.  A  spruce  slope  type  is  the  same  type  whether  the 
trees  are  seedlings  or  veterans.  But  if  the  old  stand  is 
destroyed  and  is  followed  by  a  different  species,  the  type 
is  changed.  Thus  types  are  recognized  solely  on  the  basis 
of  the  dominant  trees,  which  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  stand 
and  will  produce  the  crop  of  wood. 

Forest  Enemies. — The  worst  danger  to  a  forest  is  from 
fire.  There  is  no  region  in  this  country  free  from  fires, 
and  so  profound  is  the  influence  of  fire  on  the  forest,  that 
the  forester  is  forced  to  consider  this  danger  before  every- 
thing else'.  The  leaves  and  needles  shed  by  trees  form  an 
inflammable  litter,  which  in  dry  times  burns  readily.  Some 
forests'grow  on  such  wet  land  that  they  seldom  burn  over. 
If  a  swamp  becomes  so  dry  that  fire  runs  through  it  every 
tree  is  killed.  Forests  on  rich  soils  throw  a  heavy  shade, 
and  this  with  the  resultant  damp  condition  of  the  litter 
prevents  fire  except  in  bad  droughts.  But  on  the  drier 
soils  less  shade  is  cast,  and  there  is  a  long  season  each 
year  when  the  slightest  spark  will  start  a  blaze.  Sandy 
pine  lands  in  the  South  are  burned  over  every  year,  and  if 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  41 

by  chance  the  fires  do  not  run  for  several  seasons,  the  ac- 
cumulated debris  may  cause  such  a  hot  fire  that  a  great 
deal  of  damage  is  done. 

Eesistance  of  Trees  to  Fire. — The  amount  of  damage 
done  to  the  trees  by  a  fire  varies  from  total  destruction 
down  to  almost  nothing.  This  depends  first,  on  the  nature 
of  the  fire,  and  second,  on  the  resistance  of  the  tree.  The 
living  tissue  of  the  tree  is  its  cambium,  between  the  bark 
and  the  wood.  If  this  is  heated  beyond  a  certain  point 
it  is  killed.  If  the  cambium  around  the  entire  base  of  the 
tree  is  killed,  the  tree  is  girdled  and  dies.  The  cambium 
of  one  tree  is  probably  just  as  sensitive  as  that  of  another, 
but  these  cells  are  protected  by  the  bark  and  it  is  here 
that  differences  exist.  Bark  is  composed  of  corky  sub- 
stance which  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat.  The  more  bark 
there  is  and  the  more  corky  its  consistency,  the  better 
will  be  its  protection  against  fire.  Seedlings  of  all  species 
are  very  sensitive  to  fire,  and  the  slightest  ground  fire  will 
kill  most  yearling  plants.  But  in  two  or  three  years,  they 
begin  to  develop  thicker  bark,  and  some  of  them  may  sur- 
vive a  light  fire.  The  seedlings  of  the  southern  longleaf 
pine  develop  thick  bark  and  at  the  same  time  the  needles 
of  the  crown  turn  down  around  the  stem,  affording  addi- 
tional protection,  so  that  it  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see 
these  seedlings  starting  to  grow  after  fires  which  scorched 
off  every  vestige  of  foliage.  But  with  most  pines,  fires 
occurring  every  two  or  three  years  will  absolutely  pre- 
vent young  seedlings  from  getting  started.  Such  condi- 
tions are  found  on  nearly  the  whole  of  the  cut-over  pine 
lands  of  the  Lake  States.  The  old  forest  has  been  cut,  and 
fires,  by  preventing  the  growth  of  the  new  crop,  have  pro- 
duced a  treeless  waste.  Many  of  these  stump  wastes  have 
been  cut  for  40  or  50  years,  in  which  time  a  second  crop 
of  pine  would  have  reached  merchantable  size.  Yet  today 
there  is  nothing  and  100  years  from  now  there  will  still 


42  FORESTRY 

be  nothing  if  the  fires  continue  to  burn.  Upon  such  soils, 
a  considerable  quantity  of  grass  and  weeds  springs  up, 
which  forms  food  for  such  periodic  fires. 

Hardwood  seedlings  are  just  as  sensitive,  on  the  whole, 
as  conifers  but  they  possess,  almost  from  the  start,  the  ca- 
pacity for  sprouting,  so  will  come  up  after  a  fire.  The 
older  a  tree  gets,  the  more  severe  must  a  fire  be  to  kill  it, 
so  that  in  regions  of  frequent  surface  fires,  the  mature  tim- 
ber stands  from  year  to  year  apparently  uninjured.  This 
apparent  freedom  from  injury  may  in  some  cases  be  actual. 
The  bark  is  so  thick  and  the  fires  so  light  that  the  tree 
continues  sound.  Even  in  such  a  case,  all  the  natural  cov- 
ering which  preserves  the  moisture  of  the  forest  floor  is 
burned  up  and  it  is  probable  that  growth  is  interfered  with 
by  the  excessive  exposure  of  the  soil.  But  once  let  the  bark 
be  burned  through  anywhere  and  the  succeeding  fires 
each  eat  out  a  little  larger  hole  until  the  tree  may  burn 
completely  off.  Some  pines,  as  the  Norway  pine  of  the 
Lake  States,  and  the  Longleaf  pine,  show  this  capacity 
for  fire  resistance  in  the  face  of  repeated  small  fires.  With 
many  trees,  both  pines  and  hardwoods,  the  fire  may  kill 
the  cambium  on  only  one  side.  This  is  usually  the  side 
opposite  to  the  direction  from  which  the  fire  is  coming. 
The  fire  forms  an  eddy  and  licks  the  face  of  the  tree — 
burning  a  strip  of  bark  sometimes  6  to  10  feet  high.  If 
young,  a  tree  may  heal  such  a  wound  completely,  so  that 
it  cannot  be  noticed  until  the  tree  is  felled,  when  the  old 
scar  will  be  seen,  with  the  annual  layers  of  wood  formed 
since  the  fire  each  closing  in  across  the  gap  until  it  is  finally 
bridged.  The  younger  the  tree,  if  not  killed  outright,  the 
greater  is  its  chance  of  recovery,  provided  a  second  fire 
does  not  keep  the  wound  open.  But  this  is  not  the  end 
of  the  damage.  The  spores  of  fungi  often  find  lodgement 
in  such  fire-scars,  and  develop  rot  in  the  heart  of  the  tree, 
so  that  the  damage  done  from  this  source  may  in  a  few 
years  exceed  that  caused  by  the  fire  itself. 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  43 

The  Nature  of  Forest  Fires  and  Their  Effect  on  Forests. 
• — Fires  severe  enough  to  cause  the  death  of  large  tim- 
ber only  occur  in  prolonged  dry  spells,  and  on  windy  days. 
In  regions  commonly  free  from  fire,  where  the  vegeta- 
ble accumulation  is  deep,  fires  at  such  seasons  burn  in 
the  ground  itself,  and,  killing  the  roots,  destroy  the  larg- 
est trees.  Complete  protection  is  the  only  safeguard  for 
such  timber.  In  pine  regions  a  strong  wind  sometimes 
causes  a  fire  to  burn  up  into  the  crowns  of  the  trees  and 
to  travel  through  the  crowns.  Such  fires  are  rare  excep- 
tions, but  since  they  only  occur  in  severe  droughts,  they  do 
tremendous  damage.  The  great  forest  fires  of  history  have 
been  of  this  nature.  That  at  Hinckley,  Minnesota,  in  1894, 
caused  the  death  of  over  400  persons.  The  wind  carried 
fire  brands  over  lakes  to  distances  of  over  half  a  mile. 
Not  a  single  pine  survived  over  great  areas.  Traces  of 
similar  fires  may  be  found  elsewhere  in  Minnesota.  One, 
the  Ely  fire,  burned  a  distance  of  40  miles  and 
laid  waste  from  12  to  15  townships  of  land,  which 
is  now  after  a  lapse  of  nearly  40  years,  covered  only 
with  poplar,  birch  and  some  Jack  pine,  the  original  white 
and  Norway  pine  timber  surviving  only  on  one  or  two  is- 
lands in  the  center  of  large  lakes. 

Fires  in  hardwood  regions  are  less  severe,  since  crowns 
of  hardwoods  are  not  inflammable.  Hardwood  ridges 
act  as  checks  to  bad  fires  in  pine  woods.  But  many  spe- 
cies of  hardwoods  are  badly  injured  by  fires,  since  the 
bark  is  thin.  So  it  frequently  happens  that  a  severe  sur- 
face fire  will  kill  an  entire  stand  of  such  species  as  chest- 
nuts. Stands  of  pole  size,  if  killed,  sprout  readily,  but 
the  fire-killed  poles  decay  and  fall  over,  creating  a  dan- 
gerous fire  trap.  The  second  fire  is  almost  sure  to  occur, 
again  killing  the  young  sprouts.  The  stumps  sprout  a 
second  time  but  there  is  no  limit  to  the  number  of  fires 
that  may  occur,  while  the  capacity  of  the  stumps  for  re- 
covery is  soon  exceeded — and  after  each  fire  less  stumps 


44  FORESTRY 

recover.  Finally  scrubby  and  worthless  shrubs  like  bear 
oak — which  can  sprout  annually  for  indefinite  periods — - 
take  the  place  of  the  chestnut  and  valuable  oaks,  and  the 
area  can  be  classed  as  non-productive.  Large  districts  of 
this  character  can  be  found  in  parts  of  Pennsylvania. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  source  of  fires  is  the  burn- 
ing of  the  tops  left  after  lumbering.  Both  in  pines  and 
hardwoods,  when  logging  is  very  heavy,  the  inflammable 
nature  and  great  quantity  of  the  debris  created,  coupled 
with  the  increased  exposure  of  the  soil  to  the  sun  and 
wind,  causes  a  very  hot  fire.  This  fire  is  almost  sure  to 
kill  chance  seed  trees  left  because  of  some  defect,  and 
to  wipe  out  all  traces  of  seedling  and  sapling  growth.  A 
condition  is  created  which  is  favorable  to  future  fires,  and 
the  causes  for  these  are  not  far  to  seek,  in  a  region  where 
no  effort  is  made  to  suppress  them,  and  the  resultant  dam- 
age is  not  appreciated.  Forest  fires  are  said  by  good 
authority  to  have  destroyed  as  much  timber  as  the  lum- 
bermen have  cut.  But  a  far  greater  loss  than  this  is  rep- 
resented in  the  seedlings  burned,  and  the  absolute  pre- 
vention of  future  growth  over  almost  all  of  our  pine  forest 
area. 

Other  Forest  Enemies. — Of  the  other  natural  enemies 
which  threaten  the  forest,  none  are  of  such  a  nature  that 
they  form  a  serious  and  universal  menace.  Occasional 
fungus  diseases  occur,  such  as  the  chestnut  blight,  which 
at  present  threatens  this  tree  in  the  southern  New  Eng- 
land region.  The  trees  attacked  are  killed  by  the  girdling 
of  the  cambium  through  the  operation  of  the  fungus.  Dry 
seasons  probably  give  rise  to  such  epidemics  by  weaken- 
ing the  naturally  resistant  trees,  and  such  a  condition  will 
correct  itself.  Of  the  fungi  which  attack  the  heartwood, 
there  are  several  kinds  but  all  of  these  operate  only  upon 
trees  which  have  some  injury  in  the  bark.  Danger  of  pre- 
mature decay  from  this  source  may  be  reduced  in  a  well- 
managed  forest  by  removing  the  fruiting  bodies  of  such 


B— III— 12 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  45 

fungi,  when  they  appear  on  infested  trees,  or  by  cutting 
out  the  trees.  Insects  are  sometimes  fatal  to  trees.  They 
work  either  by  defoliation,  or  by  boring  in  the  bark  or 
wood  of  the  tree.  The  defoliating  insects  are  occasionally 
serious,  since  a  tree  cannot  live  without  leaves.  The  ma- 
ture tamarack  throughout  the  Bast  was  practically  all 
killed  by  a  sawfly  within  the  last  twenty  years.  The  im- 
ported gypsy  moth  and  the  brown  tail  moth  may,  if  not 
controlled,  kill  most  of  the  trees  in  regions  which  they 
infest,  and  the  state  of  Massachusetts  has  for  years  em- 
ployed an  army  of  men  to  combat  them,  not  altogether 
successfully.  Ordinarily,  insects  are  kept  in  check  by 
their  natural  enemies,  which  are  insect  parasites  and  birds. 
But  the  parasites  of  imported  insects  are  not  always  im- 
ported with  them. 

Bark  beetles  often  do  great  damage  to  standing  tim- 
ber, killing  all  the  trees  over  wide  areas.  These  beetles 
are  ordinarily  found  only  in  weakened  trees.  But  when 
in  great  numbers,  they  attack  healthy  trees,  choosing  the 
larger  and  older  rather  than  the  small  trees,  since  the 
former  are  really  not  so  vigorous.  The  most  disastrous 
attack  of  beetles  of  recent  years  was  the  recent  visita- 
tion in  the  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota,  where  over  200 
million  feet  of  pine  were  destroyed.  As  in  other  instan- 
ces, the  beetles  suddenly  disappeared,  killed  probably  by 
a  fungus  disease.  But  such  plagues  can  always  be  con- 
trolled if  taken  in  time,  by  cutting  the  infested  trees  and 
burning  the  tops,  the  logs  being  either  removed  or  put 
in  a  stream  and  the  beetles  drowned.  When  only  a  few 
beetles  exist,  woodpeckers  and  other  enemies  keep  them 
within  their  natural  limits. 


46  FORESTRY 

VI.  SILVICULTUKE. 

tThe  Relation  Between  Silvicultural  Operations  and  the 
Value  of  Wood  Products. 

Silviculture  is  the  art  of  growing  tree  crops.  In  this 
country  it  requires  a  working  knowledge  of  our  native 
species,  and  an  ability  to  recognize  conditions,  both  in  the 
woods  and  in  the  markets.  One  can  hardly  consider  the 
production  of  timber  without  taking  the  cost  into  account. 
The  lumberman  holds  standing  timber  either  because  he 
has  more  than  he  can  cut  at  present,  or  to  profit  from 
an  increase  in  the  value  of  the  stumpage.  It  is  his  inten- 
tion to  convert  the  investment  into  cash  by  the  cutting 
of  the  timber  and  sale  of  the  land  for  farms  if  possible. 
The  production  of  timber  means  a  definite  intention  to 
profit  by  growth.  Whatever  gain  comes  from  the  in- 
crease of  stumpage  value  is  merely  .n  additional  incen- 
tive. The  ideal  of  the  forester  :'s  to  produce  the  largest 
crops  of  the  most  valuable  material  in  the  shortest  pos- 
sible time,  and  at  the  least  possible  expense.  Since  for- 
est crops  are  not  obtained  for  many  years  after  they  are 
planted  or  started  from  seed,  the  only  way  to  calculate 
returns  on  investments  is  by  neans  o~  compound  inter- 
est. The  longer  the  period,  '^e  nore  rapidly  this  accu- 
mulates. For  this  reason  all  expenses  connected  with  the. 
production  of  forests  must  be  kept  as  low  as  possible  if 
one  is  to  receive  a  reasonable  return  on  his  investment. 
But  ideal  methods  of  forest  production  call  for  a  great 
deal  of  work  in  the  forest  during  the  growing  of  the  crop. 
To  produce  the  largest  crops  of  the  most  valuable  mate- 
rials, each  tree  should  have  room  to  develop,  yet  be  crowd- 
ed sufficiently  to  enable  it  to  clear  itself  of  its  lower  limbs. 
In  European  countries  this  result  is  obtained  by  first  se- 
curing a  dense  stand  of  seedlings  and  then  making  fre- 
quent thinnings,  in  which  small  material  is  taken  out 
allowing  the  remaining  tree:  to  grow  freely.  But  no- 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  47 

where  is  such  work  done  when  it  does  not  pay  to  do  it. 
The  cheapness  of  labor  and  scarcity  of  wood  in  continen- 
tal countries  enable  foresters  to  actually  sell  brush  and 
twigs  for  enough  to  cover  the  cost  of  removal.  Every 
stick  of  material  produced  has  its  value — and  thinnings 
instead  of  being  an  expense,  are  a  source  of  actual  in- 
come. In  our  country  there  are  wide  areas  where  it  does 
not  even  pay  to  sell  cordwood,  since  the  cost  of  cutting 
and  transportation  more  than  equals  the  price  received 
for  it.  In  a  few  localities  near  large  cities,  small  material 
can  be  sold  for  various  uses,  chiefly  fuel,  but  over  the 
greater  part  of  our  forest  domain  a  tree  must  not  only 
be  of  a  valuable  species,  but  must  reach  a  size  where  it 
is  fit  for  lumber,  railroad  ties  or  other  important  com- 
mercial use,  before  it  can  be  cut  at  a  profit.  To  cut  out 
material  which  is  not  salable,  would  be  to  incur  a  large 
expense  for  which  the  fine.:  yield  might  not  give  an  ade- 
quate return.  This  necessity,  which  is  universal,  of  lim- 
iting the  expense  of  their  operations  in  conformity  with 
the  market,  makes  it  very  difficult  for  American  foresters 
to  do  many  things  that  they  would  like  to  do  otherwise, 
but  true  forestry  is  to  make  the  best  and  most  profitable 
investment  in  the  forest  and  not  to  sink  money  in  fancy 
operations,  which  will  never  be  returned.  This  necessi- 
tates more  extensive  operations.  Instead  of  managing  a 
few  acres  with  the  greatest  care,  the  American  forester 
is  forced  to  care  for  many  thousands  of  acres  as  well  as 
he  can  with  a  small  annual  expense,  and  depend  very 
largely  on  nature  to  produce  the  crops  of  trees. 

Planting. 

Artificial  planting  is  therefore  not  as  widely  applica- 
ble in  the  United  States  as  in  Europe.  But  it  is  one  of 
the  surest  ways  of  securing  the  largest  and  best  crop 
from  an  acre  of  land,  and  in  the  East  and  on  farmland 
is  being  quite  extensively  practiced.  It  is  a  safe  quick 


48  FOEESTRY 

way  of  reforesting  a  tract  devoid  of  trees.  The  better 
the  soil,  the  simpler  the  operation.  Mistakes  are  made 
in  choice  of  species  and  in  methods  of  planting,  chiefly 
in  going  to  too  great  an  initial  expense.  Plant  material 
for  forest  planting  if  obtained  from  nurserymen,  is  some- 
times held  at  prices  more  suitable  for  ornamental  plant- 
ing. Plants  are  bought  which  are  too  large  for  the  needs 
of  the  planter.  White  pine  if  planted  should  not  be  over 
three  years  old,  at  which  age,  if  transplanted  once,  it  is 
not  over  6  or  8  inches  high  at  most,  and  should  cost  not 
more  than  $5.00  or  $6.00  per  thousand.  In  planting,  the 
spacing  is  quite  important,  as  it  determines  the  number 
of  plants  per  acre,  upon  which  hinges  the  cost.  Closer 
planting  than  6  by  6  feet  is  now  universally  condemned 
in  this  country.  It  requires  too  many  plants  and  the  stand 
grows  up  so  dense  that  at  an  early  age  the  growth  is 
checked  by  crowding.  It  does  not  pay  to  thin  the  stand 
for  such  small  material  hence  there  is  a  decided  loss  in- 
stead of  a  gain  from  the  crowding  in  spite  of  double  the 
initial  planting  expense.  Spacing  as  wide  as  8  by  8  feet  is 
sometimes  urged,  and  should  succeed  if  care  is  taken  to 
secure  a  full  stand,  and  the  soil  is  not  too  dry.  If  the 
roots  of  conifers  are  allowed  to  become  dry  at  any  time 
during  transplanting,  the  seedlings  wfll  be  killed.  But 
after  planting  they  should  not  be  watered  as  this  will 
cause  their  death.  Needless  to  say,  the  watering  of  large 
plantations  would  be  an  impossibility  in  any  case.  The 
operation  of  planting  does  not  require  much  labor — a  hole 
is  made  by  the  insertion  of  a  spade,  or  with  a  mattock, 
big  enough  to  receive  the  roots,  and  the  earth  is  firmed 
about  them  with  the  foot.  Two  men  can  plant  1,000  trees 
a  day  in  sandy  soil,  and  the  cost  depends  on  the  price  of 
labor.  To  produce  the  seedlings,  special  care  is  required. 
They  are  raised  in  seed  beds,  and  protected  by  lath  screens 
during  the  first  season,  and  by  a  slight  mulch  over  win- 
ter. The  best  plan  is  to  sow  broadcast  in  the  seed  bed, 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  49 

since  a  full  stocking  of  plants  may  be  secured  that  will 
crowd  out  weeds.  But  where  seedlings  can  be  had  at  rea- 
sonable figures  it  is  best  to  purchase  them.  Upon  farm 
lands,  there  is  considerable  interest  in  the  planting  of 
trees  to  produce  fence  posts.  Where  such  small  materi- 
als are  desired,  the  trees  could  be  set  a  little  closer  than 
6  feet,  since  thinnings  can  be  made  for  fuel  and  posts  are 
useful  at  small  sizes.  Some  species,  as  hardy  catalpa, 
have  been  advocated  for  universal  planting,  when  experi- 
ence shows  that  they  succeed  only  in  a  narrow  range. 
Catalpa  thrives  only  on  the  best  of  soils,  and  on  sandy 
land,  or  dry  soils,  does  not  grow  as  well  as  other  species. 
Many  experiment  stations  are  testing  the  growth  of  na- 
tive species,  and  numerous  bulletins  may  be  had  from 
the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  on  trees  suitable  for  planting 
in  different  localities,  so  that  there  is  very  little  excuse 
for  committing  serious  blunders. 

But  planting  affects  the  larger  problems  of  the  man- 
agement of  forest  tracts  only  in  a  very  small  way.  Most 
lands  that  will  be  devoted  to  forests  are  already  forest 
lands,  wholly  or  in  part  covered  with  trees,  or  else  burned 
and  cut  over.  If  there  are  seed  trees  of  any  description 
near  enough  to  seed  up  the  burned  or  logged  areas,  some 
kind  of  tree  growth  will  come  up.  It  may  not  be  very 
valuable  now,  but  there  is  a  possibility  of  its  becoming 
so  with  rising  values  for  wood  of  all  kinds.  In  case  of 
large  burns,  following  logging,  where  practically  no  seed 
trees  remain,  planting  would  be  the  most  sensible  means 
of  restocking,  provided  the  funds  can  be  obtained  for  the 
purpose. 

Cutting  the  Old  Timber  to  Secure  Reproduction. 

A  second  general  plan  to  secure  a  new  crop  of  seed- 
lings can  be  applied  if  the  land  is  put  under  management 
before  the  old  timber  is  removed.  This  timber  is  produc- 
ing seed,  and  can  be  cut  in  such  a  way  that  the  seed  will 


50  FOEESTEY 

be  distributed  and  the  seedlings  have  a  chance  to  become 
established  before  the  last  of  the  old  trees  are  gone.  There 
are  many  modifications  of  this  plan  in  use  in  Europe, 
but  all  have  the  common  feature  of  leaving  part  of  the 
merchantable  timber  standing  after  the  first  cut,  to  be 
removed  later  on.  This,  to  the  American  operator,  means 
increased  expense. 

Silvicultural  Systems. 

Strip  and  Group  Systems. — One  plan,  known  as  the 
strip  system,  is  to  cut  strips  through  the  forest,  whose 
width  does  not  exceed  the  distance  to  which  seeds  will  be 
blown  from  the  adjoining  strips  which  are  not  cut.  This 
plan  has  been  used  in  Montana  in  lodgepole  pine  with  some 
success,  in  a  region  where  it  was  possible  to  sell  all  the 
small  material  removed  by  clear  cutting.  A  modification 
of  this  system  of  clear  cutting  is  to  cut  in  groups  or 
patches  leaving  the  surrounding  timber  for  seed  and  pro- 
tection. Species  which  are  shallow  rooted  and  require 
considerable  protection  from  drought  as  well  as  wind  are 
reproduced  best  by  this  plan,  which  is  being  practiced 
in  the  mountains  of  Colorado  on  the  Engelman  spruce. 

Clear  Cutting  with  Seed  Trees.— A  still  further  ap- 
proach to  clear  cutting  is  the  removal  of  almost  the  en- 
tire stand,  leaving  seed  trees  to  secure  the  second  crop 
of  seedlings.  On  the  Minnesota  National  Forest  it  was 
specified  by  law  that  5  per  cent  of  the  merchantable  tim- 
ber should  be  allowed  to  remain  as  seed  trees.  The  spe- 
cies were  white  and  Norway  pine,  both  of  which  come 
up  best  in  clearings.  The  important  point  in  this  method 
is  the  selection  of  seed  trees.  In  ordinary  logging,  if  any 
trees  are  left  it  will  be  the  defective  or  rotten  trees  which 
the  lumberman  does  not  see  a  profit  in  handling.  Such 
trees  will  produce  seed,  and  the  seedlings  will  be  vigor- 
ous. Even  if  the  seed  trees  are  crooked  or  stunted  it  does 
not  necessarily  mean  that  the  seed  produced  will  have 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  51 

inherited  these  undesirable  qualities.  The  seedlings  will 
be  very  certain  to  produce  trees  which  have  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  old  stand,  and  not  of  the  single  tree. 
Only  in  case  all  or  most  of  the  trees  in  a  vicinity  are  stunted, 
crooked  or  otherwise  defective,  will  the  seedlings  of 
any  one  tree  inherit  these  qualities  since  in  such  a  case 
it  is  evidently  the  general  conditions  which  have  produced 
these  qualities. 

The  real  objection  to  leaving  rotten  seed  trees  pur- 
posely is  that  they  can  never  be  utilized  and  are  a  dead 
loss.  With  increased  value  of  wood,  there  are  very  few 
trees  that  it  will  not  pay  to  cut  and  use  at  least  in  part. 
But  by  the  time  a  second  cutting  comes  around,  such  trees 
will  have  blown  down  from  weakness,  due  to  rot  and  old 
age.  The  best  plan  is  to  select  sound,  young,  thrifty  trees 
which  are  old  enough  to  produce  plenty  of  seed.  These 
trees  will  increase  greatly  in  size,  remain  sound,  and  form 
a  valuable  part  of  the  next  cut.  The  chief  danger  in 
using  this  method  is  from  windfall.  Trees  suddenly  ex- 
posed on  all  sides  to  the  wind  are  apt  to  blow  down  be- 
fore they  have  time  to  adjust  their  roots  and  stump  to 
the  new  strain.  The  older  the  tree  is  the  greater  the  dan- 
ger. In  selecting  trees  it  is  possible  to  choose  trees  which 
are  as  exposed  as  possible,  since  such  trees  have  already 
become  adjusted  to  wind  strain.  The  species  which  lend 
themselves  most  readily  to  this  method  are  strong  rooted 
trees,  which  ordinarily  grow  in  somewhat  open  stands, 
as  the  western  yellow  pine  or  the  southern  yellow  pines. 
Shallow  rooted  trees  like  spruce  would  be  almost  sure  to 
blow  down,  and  even  white  pine  in  the  mountains  of 
Montana,  on  shallow  soil,  was  found  to  be  unable  to  stand 
when  left  singly. 

Selection  System. — The  opposite  extreme  to  clear- 
cutting  for  reproduction  is  found  in  what  is  known  as 
the  selection  system.  Tinder  this  plan,  only  the  oldest 
and  largest  trees  of  a  forest  are  removed,  leaving  most 


52  FORESTRY 

of  the  stand  intact.  Cuttings  would  be  made  at  frequent 
intervals  on  the  same  ground,  but  there  would  always 
be  a  forest  cover.  Such  a  plan  is  suitable  for  very  crude 
operations  in  forests  composed  of  many  species,  of  which 
only  a  few  are  merchantable.  The  selection  of  valuable 
hardwoods  such  as  cherry  or  walnut,  or  of  large  white 
oaks  for  stave  material,  bears  a  resemblance  to  this  sys- 
tem of  cutting.  But  such  a  method  in  a  mixed  forest 
soon  exterminates  the  best  kinds  of  timber,  leaving  only 
the  poorer  varieties.  It  is  not  possible  to  do  anything 
else  when  markets  are  so  poor  that  only  the  best  quality 
and  kinds  of  wood  can  be  sold  at  all.  Hence  it  has  been 
the  prevailing  system  of  logging  over  most  of  the  hard- 
wood forests  in  inaccessible  or  pioneer  localities.  As  mar- 
kets improved,  a  greater  number  of  species  became  mer- 
chantable, and  much  smaller  sized  trees  could  be  cut. 
Logging  operations  then  began  to  take  on  the  form  of 
a  clear  cutting  but  without  any  regard  for  future  crops 
or  the  protection  of  young  trees. 

A  systematic  application  of  the  selection  System  by 
foresters  differs  very  widely  from  the  hit  or  miss  selec- 
tion by  woodsmen.  The  forester  chooses  this  method 
only  when  the  species  is  one  that  succeeds  best  when  the 
young  trees  spring  up  under  almost  complete  shade  and 
protection  of  the  old  timber.  The  European  silver  fir 
is  sometimes  managed  in  this  way.  At  intervals  of  a  very 
few  years  the  whole  forest  is  cut  over,  a  small  portion 
being  cut  each  year,  but  the  only  trees  taken  are  the  old- 
est and  largest.  Before  the  next  cut,  a  few  more  trees 
have  reached  the  proper  size.  There  is  in  such  a  forest, 
only  one  or  two  species,  and  every  age  and  size  is  repre- 
sented on  each  acre,  so  that  the  form  of  the  forest  stand 
is  the  extreme  opposite  of  an  even-aged  stand,  where  the 
crowns  of  the  trees  form  a  canopy  of  about  the  same 
height.  When  the  forester  attempts  to  apply  the  selec- 
tion system  to  forests  which  are  irregular  in  the  distri- 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  53 

bution  of  their  age  classes,  and  are  composed  of  many 
species,  some  of  which  are  not  valuable,  he  is  sometimes 
forced  by  market  values  to  do  just  what  he  ought  not 
to  do,  that  is,  cut  the  best  kinds  and  leave  the  poorer. 
But  the  difference  between  his  operations  and  the  lum- 
berman's would  be,  that  he  would  make  every  effort  to 
cut  out  and  get  rid  of  as  much  poor  material  as  he  could 
sell,  even  at  a  very  small  profit,  and  save  as  many  of 
the  more  valuable  trees  as  he  could,  both  to  grow  and 
to  act  as  seed  trees.  The  form  of  a  forest  cut  on  these 
principles  is  bound  to  be  very  irregular  and  patchy. 
But  most  of  our  native  woods,  especially  our  virgin  stands 
of  hardwood,  are  of  this  character,  and  it  would  not  be 
possible  to  at  once  bring  them  into  the  condition  when 
the  stands  are  comparatively  even-aged.  There  is  young 
timber  in  scattered  bodies  all  through  the  forest,  which  has 
been  growing  for  10  to  50  years,  and  this  must  be  allowed 
to  mature.  But  on  the  whole,  the  aim  of  the  forester  in 
most  cases  should  be  to  work  for  even-aged  stands  rath- 
er than  to  try  to  perpetuate  a  selection  form  of  many- 
aged  stands  indefinitely.  Greater  yields  are  produced 
by  the  even-aged  form,  and  the  expense  and  difficulties 
of  logging  are  much  reduced. 

Changing  a  Selection  Forest  to  an  Even-Aged  Form. 
— A  good  example  of  the  choice  between  these  two  ex- 
tremes is  to  be  found  in  stands  of  western  yellow  pine. 
This  tree  is  so  nearly  fireproof  and  wind-firm  that  it  is 
hardly  ever  destroyed.  The  old  trees  die  singly  and 
groups  of  young  trees  take  their  place.  The  whole  form 
of  the  forest  is  open  on  account  of  the  dryness  of  the 
soil.  It  would  be  perfectly  possible  to  apply  a  selection 
system  of  cutting  here,  removing  a  few  old  trees  each 
year.  But  the  reproduction  of  the  tree  would  take  place 
just  as  well  over  large  cleared  areas  if  seed  trees  were 
present,  and  the  expense  of  logging  is  such  that  it  is  ab- 
solutely necessary  to  cut  as  much  from  each  acre  as  the 


54  FORESTRY 

welfare  of  the  stand  will  permit.  So  the  forest  is  cut 
in  two  operations.  In  the  first  cutting,  about  two  thirds 
of  the  mature  timber  is  taken.  All  the  old,  over-mature 
trees  and  those  damaged  or  rotten  or  otherwise  defec- 
tive, come  out  in  this  cut.  The  trees  which  are  not  taken 
are  marked  either  with  paint  or  by  blazing  with  an  axe. 
They  comprise  all  the  young  rapidly  growing  trees,  sound, 
with  good  crowns,  capable  of  producing  plenty  of  seed. 
If  the  stand  is  all  over-mature,  seed  trees  are  selected  as 
well  as  possible  from  these  trees.  A  much  larger  per 
cent  of  the  stand  is  left  than  in  the  seed-tree  method 
previously  described.  The  result  of  the  first  cut  should 
be  an  even-aged  stand  of  seedlings  over  at  least  half  the 
area.  After  an  interval  of  30  to  40  years,  the  remain- 
der of  the  stand  may  be  cut.  There  will  be  a  great 
irregularity  still,  but  the  stand  will  be  reduced  roughly 
to  two  age  classes,  which  is  a  great  improvement  over 
the  original  form.  This  scheme  is  being  put  into  opera- 
tion very  widely  on  National  Forests  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. 

Reproduction  of  Even-Aged  Stands  by  Successive  Cut- 
tings.e=A  more  advanced  system  of  reproduction  by  mak- 
ing several  cuttings,  is  practiced  in  Europe  with  hard- 
woods, such  as  beech,  where  the  young  plants  must  spring 
up  under  the  old  trees.  The  forest  has  in  the  past  been 
brought  into  an  even-aged  form.  When  the  stand  is 
ready  to  cut,  a  few  trees  are  first  taken  out  to  give  light. 
The  seedlings  at  once  start  up.  Then  more  of  the  old 
timber  is  removed  and  after  three  or  four  cuttings  on  the 
same  area,  it  is  all  gone,  leaving  a  dense  and  thrifty 
young  even-aged  stand  in  its  place.  Many  of  our  trees 
could  be  handled  in  this  way  if  the  time  ever  came  when 
we  could,  with  high  markets  for  all  classes  of  wood  prod- 
ucts and  cheap  labor,  afford  to  cut  any  kind  of  wood  at 
any  time,  and  thus  finally  bring  our  mixed  forests  to  the 
condition  of  pure  or  nearly  pure  even-aged  stands.  Heavy 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  55 

seeded  trees  like  oaks,  chestnuts  and  others,  if  they  are 
to  be  reproduced  from  seed,  must  be  managed  by  gradu- 
ally opening  up  the  stand,  so  that  there  is  light  for  the 
seedlings  and  the  seed  trees  will  not  be  too  far  off.  But 
anything  like  the  system  used  in  Europe  will  not  be  pos- 
sible here  for  many  years. 

The  Sprout  System. — The  simplest  method  of  repro- 
ducing a  forest,  and  one  which  has  been  unintentionally  ap- 
plied over  vast  areas,  is  to  depend  upon  the  sprouts.  As 
all  hardwoods  sprout,  we  have  only  to  be  sure  that  the 
trees  are  young  enough  to  retain  this  power,  and  to  cut 
them  at  the  proper  season,  that  is,  the  dormant  period 
of  the  tree's  annual  growth,  and  the  second  crop  starts 
at  once.  These  stands  are  even-aged  if  the  area  has  been 
clear-cut.  It  is  usually  far  better  to  make  a  complete 
cut  than  to  select  the  best  trees  and  leave  part  of  the 
stand,  if  this  method  of  reproduction  is  to  be  used.  Some 
of  our  best  species,  as  chestnut,  are  rather  intolerant  of 
shade.  If  many  trees  are  left,  the  sprouts  from  a  chest- 
nut stump  soon  become  too  shaded  for  good  growth,  and 
lose  their  upright  form,  spreading  out  sideways  for  light. 
Finally  they  may  die  and  the  productiveness  of  the  stump 
be  ended. 

Sprouts  from  trees  which  were  originally  seedlings  are 
vigorous  and  apt  to  be  sound.  But  in  many  places  in 
New  England,  these  sprouts  have  again  been  cut,  giving 
rise  to  a  second  generation  of  sprouts.  A  third  and  fourth 
cutting  may  be  made,  but  with  each  crop,  the  sprouts 
grow  more  slowly,  reach  a  smaller  size  and  are  more  apt 
to  be  rotten,  since  they  frequently  become  infected  from 
the  rotting  stump  to  which  they  are  attached.  One  of 
the  most  difficult  problems  of  the  forester  is  to  renew 
such  depleted  sprout  forests.  This  should  be  done  by  es- 
tablishing seedlings  in  the  place  of  the  old  sprouts.  The 
European  method  is  to  allow  the  stand  to  grow  to  an  age 
at  which  the  stumps  have  lost  their  sprouting  vigor.  It 


56  FORESTRY 

is  then  a  simple  matter  to  produce  a  crop  of  seedlings 
by  gradual  cutting  in  the  old  stand.  With  us,  the  same 
method  might  be  adopted,  but  in  stands  containing  a 
great  deal  of  chestnut  it  is  found  that  this  tree  sprouts  at 
ages  exceeding  100  years.  Sprouts  always  grow  much  fast- 
er than  seedlings,  and  suppress  them,  so  that  it  is  difficult 
to  establish  seedlings  in  competition  with  sprouts,  no  mat- 
ter how  poor  the  latter  may  be.  Our  general  plans  would 
have  to  be  the  same  as  in  Europe,  that  of  allowing  the 
stands  to  reach  as  great  an  age  as  possible,  saving  the 
large  trees  until  last,  and  thus  killing  out  the  larger  num- 
ber of  the  old  stumps  by  shading.  To  sum  up,  the  sys- 
tems of  silviculture  in  this  country  are,  planting;  clear 
cutting  with  reproduction  from  adjoining  stands,  by 
strips  or  by  groups;  selection  cutting  with  a  tendency 
to  establish  even-aged  groups ;  removal  of  the  stand  in 
two  cuttings  on  the  principle  of  selection  and  seed  trees; 
clear  cutting  with  the  reservation  of  a  few  seed  trees, 
and  clear  cutting  for  sprouts. 

Unwise  Legislation  Regulating  Silvicultural  Methods. 
— A  great  deal  is  said  about  cutting  forests  to  a  diameter 
limit,  and  saving  all  trees  below  this  limit.  Laws  have 
been  recommended  along  this  line.  In  a  very  rough  way, 
such  regulations  might  be  applied  to  forests  which  could 
be  cut  on  the  selection  plan,  but  for  all  other  forests,  it 
would  frequently  prevent  the  proper  method  of  cutting 
necessary  to  secure  reproduction.  Even  in  the  selection 
type,  there  are  frequently  stands  growing  in  poor  soil  in 
which  the  trees  never  reach  a  large  size  and  must  be  cut. 
It  is  not  possible  to  embody  such  technical  requirements 
in  laws  with  any  success,  when  the  proper  measures  dif- 
fer so  greatly  with  the  forests  and  the  markets. 

The  Nature  of  the  Investment  Demanded  by  Silvicul- 
tural Operations. — In  carrying  out  any  of  these  systems 
in  the  woods,  it  is  found  necessary  to  modify  the  old  meth- 
ods employed  by  the  lumberman.  Saving  of  waste  in  log- 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  57 

ging  is  not  so  difficult  to  secure.  Any  operator  will  cut 
low  stumps,  and  take  small  logs  from  the  tops  as  soon  as 
he  can  be  convinced  that  it  pays  him  to  do  it.  But  all 
silvicultural  systems  call  for  the  actual  investment  of 
money  in  the  forest,  in  various  forms.  The  portion  of 
the  stand,  which  is  left,  reduces  the  present  cut,  and  since 
it  costs  just  as  much  to  build  roads,  the  relative  cost  per 
unit  of  product  is  higher.  The  timber  must  be  felled  so 
that  it  will  not  injure  any  more  young  trees  than  nec- 
essary. This  may  not  entail  extra  expense  except  in  in- 
creased supervision  and  friction  between  the  boss  and  the 
crew.  But  the  disposal  of  the  tops  and  limbs  is  always 
an  open  question.  The  danger  from  fire  is  in  most  dis- 
tricts so  great  that  if  this  rubbish  is  left  to  dry  out,  there 
is  almost  sure  to  be  a  fire  that  will  ruin  most  of  the  re- 
maining stand.  The  tops  can  in  some  cases  be  burned 
either  in  piles,  or  as  they  lie,  without  much  damage,  if 
done  at  the  right  season.  On  the  Minnesota  National 
Forest  much  of  this  burning  was  done  in  winter  as  the 
logging  progressed,  with  great  success.  The  rest  was 
burned  as  soon  in  the  spring  as  the  piles  were  dry  but 
before  the  ground  dried  out.  For  every  1,000  feet  of  tim- 
ber scaled,  it  cost  from  12  to  25  cents  to  pile  and  burn 
the  tops.  But  the  resulting  condition  of  the  forest  was 
more  than  satisfactory,  and  it  has  been  a  comparatively 
easy  matter  to  keep  fires  out  of  the  cut-over  area.  In 
spruce  sections  it  is  recommended  that  instead  of  burn- 
ing, the  tops  be  cut  down  to  lie  flat  on  the  ground,  where 
in  about  two  years  they  will  decay  and  cease  to  be  a 
menace.  In  portions  of  the  southwest  it  is  thought  best  to 
let  the  tops  lie,  and  not  to  burn  them,  since  the  shade 
is  beneficial  to  seedlings  and  owing  to  the  scattered  con- 
dition of  the  tops,  the  increase  in  fire  risk  is  not  very  great. 
Local  conditions  will  always  determine  what  disposition 
to  make  of  the  tops. 


58  FORESTRY 

VII.    FIRE  PROTECTION. 

It  is  always  necessary,  and  often  far  more  important, 
to  keep  fire  out  of  a  cut-over  tract,  either  after  the  brush 
burning  or  altogether.  Eeproduction  will  surely  be  des- 
troyed by  fires  and  the  most  favorable  opportunity  to 
secure  tree  seedlings  will  be  lost.  Other  kinds  of  vegeta- 
tion, as  grass,  weeds  and  worthless  brush,  at  once  come 
up  in  clearings,  and  these  will,  by  sprouting  seeds  and 
root  growth,  survive  fires  while  the  seedlings  will  not. 
A  plan  for  fire  protection  must  be  adopted  as  the  most 
vital  measure  in  any  attempt  to  grow  timber.  State  laws 
are  a  great  help  in  securing  the  prevention  of  fires.  But 
the  methods  of  protection  consist  of  employing  men  to 
patrol  tracts  and  of  constructing  fire-breaks.  Of  the  two 
more  can  be  accomplished  at  less  expense  by  a  patrol. 
Most  fires  are  started  carelessly,  and  the  presence  of  a 
paid  ranger  whose  duty  is  to  inform  persons  crossing  the 
tract,  of  the  necessity  for  caution  in  the  use  of  fire,  will 
reduce  the  risk  greatly.  Again,  fires  under  most  circum- 
stances start  slowly,  and  the  prompt  discovery  of  a  blaze 
by  the  patrol  gives  a  single  man  a  chance  to  put  it  out 
without  help.  Should  one  get  beyond  his  control,  the 
ranger  is  able  to  summon  help.  Telephone  communica- 
tion is  almost  indispensable  on  large  tracts  where  help 
is  scarce.  The  whole  purpose  of  the  work  should  be  pre- 
vention and  suppression  of  fires  before  they  have  time 
to  get  beyond  control. 

Fire  Fighting. 

In  fighting  a  fire,  tools  are  a  necessity.  A  man  with- 
out a  weapon  of  attack  is  helpless.  It  is  possible  to  cut 
brush  and  beat  out  a  blaze,  but  this  is  a  very  insufficient 
substitute.  In  loose  soils  the  long  handled  shovel  is  best. 
With  this,  sand  can  be  thrown  on  the  fire.  Rakes,  in  open 
flat  forest,  or  hoes  on  rough  brushy  or  rocky  ground,  are 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  59 

used  to  scrape  out  a  path  in  front  of  the  blaze,  over  which 
it  cannot  burn.     These  methods  will  work  in  fighting  a 
fire  burning  along  the  surface  in  leaf  litter.    Such  a  fire 
does  not  travel  very  fast.    Water  is  always  useful,  but 
is  seldom  available  when  wanted  and  cannot  be  carried 
any  great  distance  over  rough  ground.     When  a  fire  is 
so  situated  that  wagons  can  be  driven  in  to  it,  water  can 
be  used  best  by  dipping  cloths  or  brush  into  pails  and 
beating  out  the  fire.    A  pail  of  water  so  used  goes  a  long 
way,  while  if  thrown  on  the  fire  it  is  wasted  at  once. 
Sometimes  fire  extinguishers  can  be  used  with  good  effect. 
They  hold  about  two  gallons  and  are  a  good  load  for  a 
man.    About  100  to  150  feet  of  blaze  can  be  put  out  by 
one  charge,  so   their  use  is  limited  to    emergency    calls, 
when  a  fire  can  be  reached  at  once,  and  is  apt  to  get  be- 
yond control.     Fires  burning  in  tall  grass  or  dry  brush 
sometimes  travel  as  fast  as  5  or  6  miles  an  hour,  and  it 
is  not  possible  to  fight  them  by  direct  attack.    Such  fires 
must  be  checked  by  back  firing.    To   start  a   back  fire, 
some  line  must  be  found  along  which  it  is  possible  to 
set  a  fire  that  will  burn  against  the  wind  toward  the  ap- 
proaching blaze.    A  stream,  an  old  road — even  a  foot  path, 
may  be  used.    If  none  of  these  is  present,  an  artificial 
line  must  be  constructed,  and  the  fire  set  along  its  edge. 
If  the  back  fire  can  be  prevented  from  crossing  the  bar- 
rier, it  will  put  an  end  to  the  blaze.    Even  in  smaller  and 
less  dangerous  tires  it  is  often  more  sensible  to  rake  out 
a  line  at  a  little  distance  from  the  fire,  and  start  a  back 
fire  toward  it  than  to  exhaust  the  men  in  beating  out 
the  main  fire,  where  they  will  be  bothered  by  heat  and 
smoke. 

Fire-Breaks. 

But  there  are  some  places  where  the  danger  from  fires 
is  very  great,  because  of  accumulations  of  inflammable 
debris  or  long  grass,  and  at  the  same  time  the  property 


60  FORESTRY 

to  be  protected  is  quite  valuable — as  for  instance,  planta- 
tions of  young  pine.  It  is  not  safe  to  trust  to  the  ability 
of  a  patrol  service  to  be  on  hand  with  sufficient  force  to 
stop  fires.  Here  artificial  fire-breaks  should  be  constructed, 
not  so  much  with  the  idea  that  fire  cannot  cross  them, 
as  to  give  the  rangers  the  best  possible  chance  to  set 
back  fires  and  control  the  oncoming  fire.  Most  of  the 
mistakes  in  building  fire-breaks  have  arisen  either  from 
the  supposition  that  the  fire-break  must  be  wide  enough 
to  prevent  fires  from  crossing  or  in  forgetting  that  such 
fire-breaks,  once  constructed,  do  not  stay  clean,  but  grow 
up  to  inflammable  grass  and  brush  if  not  tended.  Fire- 
breaks should  be  wide  enough  to  check  an  ordinary  fire, 
and  to  make  it  safe  to  set  a  back  fire  against  a  fire  travel- 
ing on  a  strong  wind.  But  a  wind  will  blow  a  fire  across 
almost  any  fire-break  in  the  absence  of  a  back  fire,  hence 
the  absurdity  of  constructing  very  wide  lines.  In  sandy 
lands,  lines  may  often  be  plowed,  and  a  fifty  foot  wide 
fire-line  is  more  than  sufficient.  In  most  conditions,  a 
break  as  wide  as  this  not  only  means  great  expense  in 
clearing,  but  the  line  soon  becomes  a  jumble  of  briars 
and  young  growth  and  ceases  to  be  a  barrier  to  fire.  In 
such  cases,  if  old  timber  is  standing  the  line  should  be 
run  through  the  timber  and  consist  of  a  well-cleared  strip, 
perhaps  not  over  ten  feet  wide  under  the  crowns  of  the 
old  trees,  which  will  keep  down  the  young  growth  that 
would  otherwise  spring  up.  The  main  point  is  to  clear 
the  ground  of  leaf  litter,  dead  logs  and  brush,  and  ex- 
pose the  mineral  soil.  In  many  places  strips  3  or  4  feet 
wide,  literally  paths,  serve  the  purpose  of  fire-breaks. 
Such  lines  have  been  constructed  in  southern  pine  re- 
gions to  check  the  small  annual  grass  fires  that  destroy 
the  seedlings.  The  most  difficult  problems  are  in  regions 
like  the  Adirondacks  where  a  fire-line  is  not  complete  with- 
out a  trench  dug  through  the  accumulated  duff  down  to 
soil  one  or  two  feet  below.  Such  lines  have  often  had  to  be 

B— III— 13 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  61 

constructed  hurriedly  in  the  two  dry  summers  of  1905 
and  1908,  to  stop  fires  from  traveling  underground.  At 
least  one  estate  has  now  begun  the  building  of  such  a  fire- 
line  along  their  boundary  to  be  in  readiness  in  case  they 
are  threatened  again.  This  line  cost  $250.00  a  mile  for 
clearing  a  space  16  feet  wide  and  trenching  two  feet  wide 
in  the  center. 

The  expense  of  fire  protection  should  not  exceed  5  to 
10  cents  per  acre  annually.  This  sum  will  not  permit  of 
much  outlay  on  small  tracts.  A  ranger  should  patrol  from 
3,000  to  10,000  acres  of  land.  In  the  west  they  are  re- 
quired to  guard  far  greater  areas.  It  is  this  limit  to  the 
expense  which  prevents  the  construction  of  many  fire- 
breaks, but  there  are  often  locations  where  it  will  evi- 
dently pay  to  construct  one  especially  along  borders  of 
forests.  On  the  Angeles  National  Forest  near  Los  Angeles, 
Cal.,  over  100  miles  of  fire-breaks  have  been  made  along 
the  foot  hills  and  the  crests  of  the  lower  ridges.  In  the 
mountainous  region  a  fire-break  should  be  placed  either 
at  the  very  bottom  of  a  slope — or  at  the  crest  of  a  ridge. 
There  is  very  little  chance  to  make  an  effective  fight  mid- 
way up  a  slope. 

Fire  Laws. 

So  important  is  fire  protection  to  the  success  of  forest 
production  that  states  have  developed  fire  laws,  and  sys- 
tems of  state  fire  wardens,  to  aid  in  securing  the  desired 
result.  Practically  the  first  forest  legislation  in  any 
state  has  been  laws  providing  penalties  for  setting  fires 
in  woodlands.  But  like  all  other  laws — to  be  effective  they 
must  be  enforced.  The  duty  of  arresting  offenders,  and 
of  extinguishing  fires  must  be  placed  upon  definite  per- 
sons. The  state  of  New  York  was  first  to  pass  a  fire  law 
of  this  character,  and  this  was  brought  about  mainly  by 
the  demand  of  the  public  that  state  lands  held  as  forest  re- 
serves in  the  Adirondacks  be  properly  protected  from  fire. 


62  FORESTRY 

The  original  form  of  this  law  has  been  greatly  changed, 
but  other  states  copied  the  provisions  and  have  in  some 
cases  retained  the  weak  points.  Minnesota  is  such  an 
instance.  In  1894,  after  the  Hinckley  fire,  this  state 
passed  a  law  creating  the  office  of  Chief  Fire  Warden, 
and  imposing  the  duties  of  town  fire  wardens  upon  the 
supervisors  of  each  town.  They  were  required  to  proceed 
to  all  forest  or  prairie  fires  and  extinguish  them,  could 
appoint  deputies,  and  employ  men  to  aid  in  fighting  fires, 
and  submit  accounts  for  such  services  to  the  county  com- 
missioners who  were  to  pay  the  bills  and  collect  one-half 
from  the  state.  A  summons  to  fight  fire  was  obligatory 
and  refusal  to  go  was  punished  by  a  fine.  The  warden 
could  arrest  anyone  on  sight  who  was  caught  in  the  act 
of  setting  fires,  without  stopping  to  procure  a  warrant. 
Most  of  these  features  are  necessary  to  a  good  fire  law. 
But  it  was  found  that  town  supervisors  with  the  duties 
of  fire  warden  thus  foisted  upon  them  by  statute  seldom 
took  any  interest  in  putting  out  fires  and  often  ignored 
their  duties  altogether.  In  the  organized  towns  of  New 
York  outside  the  state  reserves,  and  in  southern  Maine, 
the  same  system  still  prevails  with  the  same  result.  It 
is  tolerated  because  in  such  agricultural  regions  there  is 
not  much  danger  from  fires,  and  no  one  cares  who  is  the 
warden.  But  where  it  was  really  necessary  to  secure  pro- 
tection, a  new  plan  was  soon  adopted  which  was  a  great 
improvement  on  the  old  system.  The  local  fire  wardens 
were  appointed  instead  of  having  an  elected  officer  serve 
ex  officio  as  fire  warden.  In  New  York,  the  Commissioner 
of  Forestry  received  the  power  of  appointing  wardens  in 
towns  within  the  forest  reserves. 

These  men  were  naturally  selected  for  their  fitness 
for  the  job,  and  were  retained  in  office  by  reappointment, 
as  long  as  they  gave  good  services.  This  resulted  in  a 
great  improvement  in  the  efficiency  and  diligence  of  the 
wardens.  Later  on,  New  Jersey,  after  experimenting  with 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  63 

the  old  plan  of  making  town  officials  serve  as  wardens, 
changed  her  law  so  as  to  require  these  same  officials  to 
appoint  a  fire  warden  for  the  town,  which  choice  must 
be  approved  by  the  state  fire  warden.  Connecticut  and 
Massachusetts  both  passed  similar  laws,  in  which  while  the 
town  supervisors  appointed  the  warden,  the  state  forester 
had  to  approve  of  the  appointment.  A  feature  of  all  good 
fire  laws  is  the  office  of  state  fire  warden.  Local  wardens 
need  the  presence  of  some  higher  authority  both  to  edu- 
cate and  stimulate  them  in  their  duties,  and  to  have  the 
power,  at  least,  of  removing  them  if  they  are  incompetent. 
Conservative  states  like  Massachusetts  did  not  wish  to 
take  the  power  of  appointment  away  from  the  town,  but 
allowed  the  state  warden  enough  authority  to  accomplish 
the  desired  result  of  impressing  the  town  warden  with 
his  responsibility  to  the  state  official. 

Fire  Patrol. 

But  the  state  and  town  fire  wardens,  however  efficient, 
cannot  control  fires  without  the  aid  of  public  sentiment 
and  the  active  support  of  land  owners.  Up  to  within  very 
recent  years,  the  sole  duties  of  such  officials  were  to  ex- 
tinguish fires  that  were  already  started.  But  the  proper 
way  to  keep  out  fires  is  to  prevent  their  starting.  To  do 
this  requires  a  fire  patrol,  which  means  the  employment 
of  men  by  the  week  or  month,  and  paying  them  wages 
while  so  employed.  Town  fire  wardens  were  in  some 
states  required  to  patrol  their  territory,  and  could  ap- 
point men  for  this  purpose,  but  usually  nothing  of  the 
kind  was  contemplated.  The  obstacle  has  always  been 
the  cost  of  establishing  an  efficient  system  of  patrols.  Tax- 
payers do  not  appreciate  the  necessity  for  it,  and  will  not 
vote  for  the  appropriations.  It  is  not  until  there  is  a 
lively  demand  for  such  service  that  the  funds  will  be  forth- 
coming to  secure  it.  The  increased  effectiveness  of  paid 
patrols  over  town  fire  wardens  has  been  demonstrated 


64  FOEESTEY 

whenever  the  system  is  used.  The  State  of  Maine  has 
for  several  years  maintained  a  system  of  state  fire  war- 
dens in  the  unorganized  wild  lands  of  the  northern  por- 
tion. These  lands  are  divided  into  districts  over  which  a 
deputy  fire  warden  presides,  who  can  employ  rangers. 
As  but  $10,000  was  appropriated  for  this  purpose,  the 
land  owners  offered  to  pay  the  expense  of  rangers  if  the 
state  would  appoint  them  and  a  great  deal  more  was 
spent  by  associations  of  owners  in  wages  than  the  total 
state  fund.  But  as  each  warden  has  the  authority  of  the 
state  behind  him,  the  whole  plan  was  satisfactory.  A  sys- 
tem was  developed  of  building  watch  towers  on  high  hills 
and  establishing  one  of  these  wardens  as  a  lookout  with 
telephone  connections,  to  report  the  first  sign  of  fire. 
This  plan  was  found  to  have  great  merits,  as  long  as  the 
fires  were  kept  down,  but  with  a  smoky  atmosphere  the 
watch  towers  were  no  longer  useful.  The  plan  has  been 
adopted  in  the  West  using  mountain  tops  as  stations. 

The  idea  of  allowing  owners  of  land  to  pay  for  men  to 
patrol  their  lands,  and  secure  state  co-operation  by  having 
these  men  appointed  as  state  fire  wardens,  was  adopted 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  in  the  states  of  California,  Oregon, 
Washington  and  Idaho.  Timber  holdings  of  immense 
value  were  here  constantly  threatened  by  fire.  Under 
state  laws,  associations  were  formed  which  now  employ 
hundreds  of  rangers  and  at  a  cost  of  from  1  to  4  cents  per 
acre  have  reduced  the  losses  from  fire  to  a  small  fraction 
of  the  former  loss.  This  seems  to  be  the  fairest  and  sim- 
plest way  to  secure  patrol  on  private  lands.  But  it  is  not 
easy  to  bring  it  about  except  where  lands  are  held  by  large 
owners,  as  corporations.  An  instance  in  Pennsylvania 
where  the  same  principle  is  effective  is  the  Pocono  Pro- 
tective Association,  consisting  of  a  large  corporation  in- 
terested in  protecting  the  head  waters  of  streams  for 
water  flow,  and  a  number  of  proprietors  of  summer  hotels 
and  parks.  The  law  of  Pennsylvania  as  it  stands  pro- 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  65 

vides  that  town  constables  shall  be  fire  wardens,  and  in 
many  sections  it  is  a  dead  letter.  But  this  association  has 
secured  by  petition,  the  appointment  of  special  constables 
to  serve  as  fire  wardens,  and  pays  them  a  salary  to  patrol 
this  district.  Rewards  are  offered  for  the  capture  of  per- 
sons setting  fires  and  a  campaign  of  education  has  been 
waged  against  the  habit,  formerly  common,  of  burning  the 
ground  over  annually.  As  a  result  fires  have  almost 
ceased  in  this  vicinity.  In  many  cut-over  districts  the 
annual  fire  is  not  thought  to  do  any  harm,  and  land  owners 
are  indifferent  to  its  occurrence.  Under  such  circum- 
stances no  system  of  laws  or  wardens  will  stop  the  fires. 
State  wide  fire  protection  is  an  impossibility  in  many 
states  until  a  much  greater  amount  of  interest  is  roused 
in  the  possibilities  of  our  forest  lands.  This  must  be 
brought  about  by  owners  of  lands  who  are  willing  to  set 
the  example  of  growing  trees  and  to  a  large  extent  fur- 
nishing their  own  fire  protection,  with  the  assistance  when 
needed  of  town  fire  wardens  and  state  laws. 

i  VIII.  TAX  LAWS. 

Aside  from  proper  fire  laws,  states  can  do  more  to  en- 
courage private  forestry  by  wise  systems  of  taxation  than 
in  any  other  way.  Forests  are  now  taxed  as  real  estate 
is  taxed.  As  long  as  trees  are  regarded  as  so  much  lumber 
on  the  stump,  waiting  to  be  cut,  the  policy  will  be  con- 
tinued of  taxing  this  material  as  long  as  it  is  there  to  yield 
a  revenue,  with  the  knowledge  that  once  cut  there  will 
be  no  further  income  to  be  derived  from  it  by  the  local 
government.  But  this  policy  is  only  a  part  of  the  vicious 
system  of  destruction  which  is  laying  waste  lands  that 
should  be  kept  in  a  productive  condition  forever.  Since 
the  returns  on  young  timber  are  deferred  until  it  reaches 
merchantable  size,  the  longer  the  owner  defers  the  cutting 
the  more  taxes  he  has  to  pay,  and  the  less  will  his  ulti- 
mate profit  be.  Such  taxation  stimulates  and  even  com- 


66  FORESTRY 

pels  forest  destruction.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  ex- 
empt plantations  from  taxation  for  a  term  of  years,  or 
to  give  rebates  on  taxes  for  the  preservation  of  small 
tracts  of  woodland  in  connection  with  farms.  But  these 
laws  have  not  effected  any  improvement  in  the  general 
situation  and  are  mostly  unoperative.  The  principle 
which  meets  with  most  favor  among  reformers  is  to  tax 
annually  only  the  land,  on  the  basis  of  wild  or  unproduc- 
tive lands  in  the  vicinity,  and  to  tax  the  timber  at  the  time 
it  is  cut.  If  this  can  be  done,  lumber  will  bear  a  fair  but 
not  undue  burden  of  taxation,  and  timber  may  be  cut  or 
held  at  the  owner's  convenience.  The  private  owner  who 
desires  to  devote  otherwise  worthless  land  to  growing 
trees  should  be  assured  of  the  protection  of  the  state,  to 
his  investment,  instead  of  as  at  present  being  left  at  the 
mercy  of  local  tax  assessors. 

IX.  FOEBST  MENSURATION. 

Since  forestry  is  a  business  as  well  as  an  art,  it  is  im- 
portant to  know  what  returns  will  be  received  from  the 
use  of  land  for  tree  production.  The  growth  of  trees  in 
size,  and  their  age,  can  easily  be  measured  in  all  temperate 
zones,  since  the  trees  have  a  seasonal  growth,  and  lay  on 
annual  rings  which  are  usually  quite  distinct,  although 
much  more  so  with  some  species  as  pines  and  oaks,  than 
with  others  as  maple  or  basswood.  Sometimes  two  rings 
will  be  joined  in  the  same  year,  due  to  interruption  in 
growth  by  reason  of  drought  or  defoliation  by  insects.  But 
the  extra  or  false  ring  can  often  be  detected  by  its  not  being 
complete  around  the  whole  circumference  of  the  tree. 
Since  the  age  of  a  tree  can  be  found  by  counting  the  rings 
on  the  stump,  the  measured  volume,  in  board  feet,  or  cubic 
feet,  gives  the  average  rate  of  growth  of  tree  during  its 
life.  If  the  stump  is  high,  it  may  have  taken  the  seedling 
two  or  three  years  to  reach  that  height,  in  which  case  this 
period  must  be  added  to  the  age  of  the  stump  to  get  the 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  67 

true  age  of  the  tree.  The  volumes  of  trees  are  measured 
by  foresters  at  4|  feet  from  the  ground,  or  breast  high,  to 
avoid  the  swelling  of  the  stump.  This  swelling  is  not  regu- 
lar in  different  trees  of  the  same  diameter  at  breast  high, 
and  the  volumes  are  more  consistent  for  diameters  at  the 
latter  point.  By  measuring  a  large  number  of  felled  trees, 
the  average  contents  may  be  determined.  If  the  trees  are 
classified  by  height  as  well  as  diameter,  and  the  contents 
of  the  different  classes  found,  these  values  may  be  tabu- 
lated, giving  us  a  volume  table  based  on  the  diameter  and 
height. 

Timber  Estimating. 

Such  tables  are  very  useful  in  determining  the  cos- 
tents  of  standing  timber.  The  work  in  the  field  consists 
in  measuring  the  diameters  of  trees  and  enough  heights 
to  determine  the  average.  The  volume  of  an  average  tree 
is  found  from  the  table,  and  multiplied  by  the  number  of 
trees  of  that  diameter.  If  the  diameter  of  every  merchant- 
able tree  can  be  actually  measured,  and  a  volume  table  is 
available,  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  standing  timber  can 
be  obtained.  But  in  most  cases,  time  and  expense  do  not 
permit  of  so  much  labor.  Professional  timber  estimators 
resort  to  many  short  cuts  to  get  at  the  result.  The  short- 
est and  least  accurate  is  to  guess  at  the  total,  which  can 
sometimes  be  done  quite  accurately  by  experienced  men,  or 
a  strip  is  traversed  on  which  all  the  trees  are  counted  to 
a  definite  distance,  say  four  rods  on  each  side.  In  this  way 
the  estimator,  or  timber  cruiser,  seeks  to  get  an  average 
which  will  give  him,  without  actually  counting  them  all, 
the  total  number  of  trees  on  the  tract.  The  volume  of  his 
trees  is  also  gotten  by  an  average,  the  cruiser  merely 
guessing  at  the  contents  of  the  average  tree.  Each  man 
may  have  a  different  method,  but  experience  is  the  basis 
of  them  all,  and  the  more  painstaking  men  attain  an  accu- 
racy greater  than  could  be  expected  by  the  use  of  such 


68  FORESTRY 

rapid  methods.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  pine  timber  for  a 
single  man  to  estimate  a  half  section  or  320  acres  of  land, 
in  a  day. 

The  method  most  used  by  foresters  has  been  to  meas- 
ure the  diameters  of  all  trees  on  a  strip  four  rods  wide 
run  on  compass  courses  straight  through  the  forests.  This 
is  known  as  a  valuation  survey  and  gives  the  forester  a 
good  opportunity  to  make  a  map  of  the  topography  and 
types  of  timber  during  the  running  of  the  .strips. 

Determining  the  Growth  of  Stands— Yield  Tables. 

While  the  volume  of  standing  timber  may  be  quite  ac- 
curately measured  if  time  enough  is  devoted  to  it,  the  pre- 
diction of  the  growth  of  a  stand  is  more  difficult.  The  past 
growth  of  a  single  tree  is  easily  studied,  but  this  will  not 
show  what  a  forest  or  a  single  stand  will  produce.  The 
laws  of  the  growth  of  stands  differ  from  those  of  single 
trees,  for  the  number  of  trees  in  a  stand  is  constantly  dim- 
inishing with  age.  The  average  tree  of  a  50  year  old  stand 
will  not  be  the  average  at  100  years,  but  may  be  crowded 
into  the  suppressed  class  or  may  even  be  dead.  So  the 
yield  of  a  stand  at  100  years  of  age  is  best  found  by  meas- 
uring stands  of  that  age,  to  find  how  many  trees  survive, 
and  their  total  contents.  If  stands  of  all  ages  can  be 
found,  a  series  of  plots  is  obtained  which  will  show  di- 
rectly in  terms  of  stand  per  acre,  the  results  that  can  be  ob- 
tained by  growing  trees.  European  yield  tables  are  so  con- 
structed. In  America  the  chief  difficulty  in  obtaining  such 
data  is  the  irregular  and  poorly  stocked  condition  of  our 
forests.  The  stands  actually  present  may  not  be  more 
than  half  as  heavy  as  the  forest  is  capable  of  producing 
owing  to  damage  from  fire,  and  unregulated  competition 
of  poor  species.  Tables  of  this  kind  can  only  be  made  for 
even-aged  stands  composed  largely  of  a  single  species  and 
are  used  to  predict  the  yield  of  plantations  and  of  densely 
stocked  stands. 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  69 

Current  Growth  of  Stands. 

But  it  is  possible  to  determine  the  present  rate  of 
growth  or  current  growth  of  any  stand.  To  do  this  the 
present  stand  is  measured,  to  find  the  number  of  trees  in 
each  diameter  class.  Then  the  width  of  the  last  ten  rings 
should  be  measured  on  several  trees  of  each  class.  This 
can  be  done  by  making  a  slight  notch  in  the  tree  or  by 
the  use  of  an  instrument  designed  for  the  purpose,  known 
as  an  increment  borer.  This  will  give  the  size  of  the  tree 
ten  years  ago,  at  breast  high.  The  volumes  of  the  present 
tree  and  of  the  tree  ten  years  ago,  can  be  taken  from  a 
volume  table,  and  the  difference  gives  the  growth  in  ten 
years.  From  this  the  growth  of  the  whole  stand  in  that 
period  is  easily  determined.  One  way  of  overcoming  the 
difficulties  of  predicting  growth  for  long  periods  is  to 
measure  the  crown  space  occupied  by  a  dominant  tree, 
and  find  its  age  and  volume.  "We  can  assume  with  some 
degree  of  safety  that  an  acre  will  grow  as  many  trees  of 
this  size  as  there  is  room  for  the  crowns.  So  difficult  is  the 
general  problem  of  prediction  of  growth  for  long  periods 
in  our  wild  forests,  that  very  few  reliable  figures  exist 
which  give  yields  per  acre. 

Growth  of  Individual  Trees. 

Most  of  the  studies  of  growth  have  been  made  to  show 
how  fast  the  trees  of  a  given  species  grow  in  diameter. 
Growth  studies  of  this  kind  bring  out  many  interesting 
facts  if  trees  growing  under  different  conditions  are  kept 
separate.  The  comparison  of  the  rate  of  growth  of  spruce 
in  old  fields  where  it  has  full  light,  and  the  spruce  grow- 
ing under  poplar,  shows  an  astonishing  difference  in  favor 
of  the  old  field  spruce. 

Most  figures  on  growth  are  shown  by  means  of  curves 
in  which  the  increase  in  size,  either  diameter,  height  or 
volume,  appears  graphically  by  plotting  the  quantities  on 


70  FORESTRY 

cross  section  paper  over  the  corresponding  ages.  The 
curve  may  serve  the  purpose  of  getting  a  better  average 
from  figures  which  do  not  run  evenly  since  the  irregulari- 
ties may  be  evened  out,  and  new  values  read  from  such  a 
curve. 

This  method  is  commonly  used  in  preparing  tables  of 
volume  and  of  growth. 

X.  FOKEST  VALUATION. 

When  regular  crops  of  trees  are  produced  from  forests 
which  have  been  under  management  so  long  that  the 
stands  are  even-aged  and  are  producing  the  greatest  pos- 
sible amount  of  wood,  the  yield  can  be  predicted  with  some 
certainty.  The  market  value  of  the  product  cannot  be 
foretold  except  that  it  will  probably  be  more  valuable  than 
the  same  class  of  product  is  at  present.  The  expenses 
of  planting,  protecting  the  stand  from  fire  and  insects,  thin- 
ning, and  other  care,  and  the  probable  amount  of  taxation 
can  all  be  closely  approximated  from  actual  experience. 
From  these  data  European  foresters  have  calculated  the  fi- 
nancial returns  from  forest  crops  basing  their  profits  on  the 
margin  left  after  paying  all  the  expenses  of  the  crop  from 
its  inception  until  it  is  cut,  with  compound  interest  on  every 
item,  at  a  fixed  rate  of  interest.  Such  calculations  cannot 
be  employed  in  America  except  for  similar  conditions. 
For  a  plantation  it  is  possible  to  compute  the  probable  re- 
turns if  we  can  assume  the  costs,  yield  and  sale  value.  Such 
figures  can  always  be  made  conservative  so  that  we  may 
be  sure  that  the  indicated  profits  will  probably  be  exceeded. 

The  most  profitable  time  to  cut  a  stand  of  timber  is 
shown  by  these  figures,  which  is,  of  course,  the  age  at  which 
the  largest  rate  of  interest  is  earned  on  the  money  invested. 
Stands  continue  to  increase  in  yield  to  an  advanced  age. 
The  value  of  each  unit  of  wood  also  increases  as  the  trees 
grow  larger  and  produce  clear  timber,  and  there  is  a  prob- 
able increase  in  general  prices  for  wood  independent  of 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  71 

quality.  But  it  will  not  pay  the  private  owner  to  wait  too 
long,  even  with  this  three-fold  source  of  increase.  The 
interest  on  his  expenses,  with  no  income  to  offset  them,  is 
compounding  at  a  rapid  rate,  and  will  soon  offset  the  in- 
creasing value  of  the  crop.  The  practice  indicated  for  such 
owners  is  to  cut  the  crop  as  soon  as  it  has  reached  mer- 
chantable size  without  waiting  for  the  production  of  large 
material. 

The  principles  of  compound  interest  and  discount,  when 
applied  to  forest  finances,  show  exactly  what  one  can  ex- 
pect from  forestry  as  compared  with  other  investments  in 
which  the  money  would  be  tied  up  without  returns  for  the 
same  length  of  time.  This  knowledge  not  only  prevents 
us  from  making  wild  statements  about  the  profits  to  be 
derived  from  growing  trees,  but  emphasizes  the  need  of 
economy  in  all  expenses.  The  best  returns  from  white  pine 
plantations  in  New  England  are  5  to  6  per  cent  compound 
interest,  and  in  many  localities  with  slow-growing  kinds 
and  poor  markets  the  returns  would  at  present  be  as  low 
as  1  per  cent  or  might  not  yield  any  margin  over  the  taxes 
and  other  expenses. 

•  XI.  FOREST  POLICY. 

The  interest  of  the  private  owner  of  land  in  forestry 
must  remain  largely  one  of  financial  profit,  and  the  dangers 
to  which  his  investment  is  exposed,  from  fire,  taxes  and 
unforeseen  accidents,  when  combined  with  the  extremely 
long  periods  he  must  wait  for  his  crop,  will  discourage  many 
owners,  from  lumbermen  down,  in  attempting  it.  But  as 
it  was  hinted  at  in  the  introduction,  these  drawbacks  do 
not  apply  to  forestry  by  states  or  the  national  government. 
Here  interests  which  affect  the  welfare  of  the  whole  com- 
munity must  be  considered.  Wherever  it  is  conclusively 
shown  that  public  interests  will  suffer  if  the  forests  are  left 
in  private  hands  there  is  sufficient  reason  for  urging  the 
government  to  undertake  the  work  of  caring  for  such  lands. 


72  FORESTRY 

The  Influences  of  Forests  on  Climate. 

The  subject  about  which  there  is  the  most  dispute  is  the 
effect  of  the  forests  upon  the  climate  and  rainfall.  Popu- 
lar interest  is  easily  aroused  on  this  theme.  But  a  great 
many  statements  made  for  or  against  the  beneficial  effects 
of  forests  are  not  proven.  A  long  series  of  records  has 
been  kept  at  European  experiment  stations  established  for 
the  purpose  of  finding  out  the  facts,  and  from  such  conflict- 
ing data,  some  points  have  been  proved.  The  total  amount 
of  rainfall  over  a  large  area  for  a  number  of  years  is  prob- 
ably not  perceptibly  increased  by  forests,  though  it  is  al- 
most impossible  to  prove  this.  Nor  do  forests  have  much  in- 
fluence on  storms  of  a  general  character.  They  may,  and 
probably  do,  slightly  increase  the  number  of  summer  show- 
ers. The  influence  of  forests  upon  the  air  under  the  crowns 
is  to  moderate  extremes  of  temperature,  both  hot  and  cold. 
They  are  very  effective  in  checking  strong  winds,  so  that 
not  only  within  a  forest  is  the  air  almost  still  on  a  windy 
day,  but  the  effect  is  felt  for  a  long  distance  on  the  lea  side. 
Single  rows  of  trees  are  planted  as  wind-breaks  in  prairie 
countries.  Both  by  checking  the  wind  and  cutting  off  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  forests  check  evaporation  and  tend  to  pre- 
serve the  moisture  in  the  air  and  in  the  soil.  The  effect  of 
moisture  in  the  air  is  to  check  undue  loss  of  heat  by  radia- 
tion and  to  dispel  the  direct  heat  rays  of  the  sun.  This 
largely  accounts  for  the  modifying  influence  of  the  forest 
on  extremes  of  temperature.  But  taken  as  a  whole,  we 
cannot  prove  that  the  presence  or  absence  of  forests  in- 
creases the  rainfall  or  modifies  the  climate  to  a  great  de- 
gree, though  all  the  evidence  points  for  rather  than  against 
the  theory.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  establish  any  connection 
between  the  destruction  of  forests  in  one  region  and 
changes  of  climate  in  an  adjoining  region  separated  by  20 
to  200  miles  in  distance.  Whatever  influence  the  forest  has 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  73 

must  of  necessity  be  local,  and  will  be  felt,  at  most,  only 
a  very  few  miles  from  the  forest  borders. 

Influences  of  Forests  on  Streams  and  Soil  Erosion. 

But  when  we  consider  the  influence  of  forests  upon  the 
behavior  of  the  water  which  falls  as  rain,  and  its  influence 
on  the  soil  and  on  streams,  the  facts  are  indisputable. 
Rain  falling  on  bare  soil  hardens  it  by  impact  and  decreases 
its  absorptive  power.  In  heavy  downpours,  the  water, 
unable  to  sink  into  the  soil,  rushes  off  in  surface  streams 
which  soon  wash  out  gullies.  The  more  exaggerated  these 
conditions  become,  the  more  rapidly  will  the  rainfall  be 
drained  into  streams,  causing  sudden  freshets,  which  de- 
stroy bridges  and  wash  out  or  cover  bottomlands  with  sand 
and  boulders.  Any  influence  which  retards  the  flow  of 
rainwater  and  increases  the  amount  absorbed  by  the 
ground,  will  tend  to  equalize  the  flow  of  streams.  This  to 
a  marked  extent  the  forest  accomplishes.  The  force  of  the 
rain  is  broken  by  the  branches,  while  the  leaf  litter  and 
other  rubbish  impede  the  flow  of  the  water.  The  litter 
and  humus  cover,  not  only  take  up  water  in  large  quantities, 
but  keep  the  soil  porous  below.  Much  of  the  water  so  ab- 
sorbed appears  as  springs  and  it  is  everywhere  noted  that 
the  destruction  of  a  forest  cover  causes  springs  to  dry  up. 
In  many  places,  the  retarding  effects  of  forests  on  runoff 
have  been  compared  by  actual  measurements  and  found  to 
be  very  pronounced.  Soil  thus  protected  cannot  wash.  It 
is  in  mountainous  regions  that  these  effects  are  most 
noticed  and  here  the  need  of  forest  protection  is  greatest. 

Government  Regulation  versus  Government  Ownership. 

For  these  reasons  it  is  not  safe  to  allow  owners  to  re- 
move timber  from  steep  mountain  slopes,  and  in  many 
countries  laws  are  enforced  regulating  such  cutting.  But 
even  in  European  states  whose  citizens  are  used  to  being 
interfered  with  by  the  government,  it  has  not  been  easy  to 


74  POEESTRY 

compel  them  to  properly  manage  forests  which  must  be 
protected.  A  better  plan  almost  universal  there  is  for  the 
state  to  acquire  the  ownership  of  such  lands,  and  with  it 
the  right  to  manage  them  wholly  for  the  good  of  the  depen- 
dent communities.  In  the  French  Alps,  following  the  revo- 
lution, timber  was  cut  on  mountain  slopes,  which  had  prev- 
iously been  protected.  The  effect  is  historical.  Torrents 
formed  and  destroyed  the  fertile  land  in  the  valleys.  The 
population  dwindled  to  a  remnant  of  the  original  numbers. 
The  government  finally  began  the  work  of  controlling  these 
streams  by  means  of  brush  dams  and  forest  planting,  and 
has  been  wholly  successful  as  far  as  the  work  has  pro- 
ceeded. But  in  every  case  the  title  to  these  lands  was  first 
obtained  by  the  state  and  under  such  management  a  repe- 
tition of  the  catastrophe  cannot  occur.  It  will  be  found  that 
the  movement  for  government  and  state  management  and 
ownership  of  forest  lands  has  made  the  most  rapid  strides 
in  mountainous  regions.  There  is  but  little  opposition  to 
government  ownership  of  forests  on  high  mountains  whose 
chief  value  is  for  protecton.  In  such  forests  there  is  sel- 
dom any  cutting  done,  and  if  at  all,  it  is  managed  under 
a  system  of  selection  which  keeps  the  forest  cover  intact. 

(  History  of  National  Forestry  in  United  States. 

The  movement  for  governmental  forestry  in  America 
did  not  gather  force  until  quite  recently,  and  has  reached 
its  greatest  development  in  the  West.  This  was  due  to 
two  facts.  The  national  government  still  owned  vast  tracts 
of  mountainous  and  forest-covered  land  there,  and  there 
existed  a  man  who  had  the  breadth  of  insight  to  see  the 
future  needs  of  the  nation,  and  the  strength  of  purpose  to 
achieve  his  ends.  Gifford  Pinchot  became  the  chief  of  the 
government  forest  service  in  1897.  The  first  large  forest 
reserves  were  proclaimed  in  1891  and  had  been  much  in- 
creased in  size  and  number  by  President  Cleveland  in  1897. 
It  was  easy,  after  the  proper  legislative  authority  had  been 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  75 

obtained,  to  declare  government  lands  set  aside  as  forest 
reserves.  But  it  was  not  easy  to  bring  about  their  proper 
management,  and  to  make  them  useful  to  the  people.  This 
has  been  the  work  of  Mr.  Pinchot.  The  first  task  was  to 
formulate  regulations  permitting  the  cutting  of  timber 
under  restrictions,  opening  the  reserves  to  legitimate  min- 
ing and  stock  grazing,  and  protecting  them  from  fire  and 
trespass.  The  next  forward  step  was  the  transfer  of  their 
management  from  the  Land  office  of  the  Interior  Depart- 
ment, to  the  Forest  Service  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, where  they  would  come  under  the  direct  charge  of  for- 
esters educated  to  understand  both  the  objects  of  the  re- 
serves and  the  methods  of  accomplishing  them.  The  third 
and  final  stage,  which  is  still  in  progress,  was  the  education 
of  the  people  of  the  West  to  the  necessity  and  significance  of 
government  control  and  regulation  of  the  use  of  the  forests, 
water,  and  grazing  rights,  for  the  benefit  of  all.  The  pol- 
icy of  the  Forest  Service  has  been  clearly  defined  from  the 
start.  The  settler  and  home  builder  receives  first  consider- 
ation, and  this  is  most  effectively  accomplished  by  distrib- 
uting grazing  rights  on  the  basis  of  residence  rather  than 
influence.  The  title  to  water  power  is  retained,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  public,  and  a  strong  fight  is  waged  constantly 
to  prevent  the  passage  of  legislation  tending  to  give  these 
rights  in  perpetuity  to  power  companies.  Timber  is  sold 
to  lumber  companies,  but  the  lumbermen  on  a  National  For- 
est can  no  longer  neglect  the  future  of  the  stand.  Before 
any  cutting  is  done,  the  needs  of  the  forest  are  thoroughly 
worked  out,  and  the  logger  is  then  allowed  to  cut  only  such 
trees  as  are  marked,  and  must  remove  all  merchantable 
timber,  fell  defective  trees,  and  use  them  if  possible,  and 
take  whatever  measures  to  clear  up  the  tops  and  rubbish 
as  are  considered  necessary  by  the  forester.  Settlers  are 
allowed  free  use  of  timber,  under  permit,  for  fuel  and  build- 
ing, and  in  every  way  the  forest  areas  are  made  to  contrib- 
ute as  much  as  possible  to  the  prosperity  of  the  West.  Not 


76  FORESTRY 

the  least  of  these  benefits  is  the  protection  which  the  for- 
ests afford  to  the  water  sheds  from  which  are  drawn  the 
waters  for  irrigating  the  numerous  valleys  whose  cultiva- 
tion is  wholly  dependent  on  this  water.  Much  strong  oppo- 
sition has  been  met,  rising  partly  from  ignorance  of  the 
aims  and  methods  of  the  service,  but  more  often  from  self- 
ish interests  desiring  undisputed  possession  of  grazing,  and 
other  resources,  and  a  chance  to  acquire  timber  and  cut 
it  as  they  pleased.  In  overcoming  this  opposition,  Mr.  Pin- 
chot  has  shown  the  qualities  which  Americans  most  admire, 
honesty,  fearlessness  and  common  sense.  National  forestry 
is,  under  his  guidance,  making  rapid  strides  toward  the 
attainment  of  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  designed.  But 
the  government  has  not  yet  committed  itself  to  the  policy 
of  purchasing  lands  for  forest  reserves,  no  matter  how 
pressing  the  apparent  need.  The  only  national  forests  in 
the  East  are  found  in  Florida,  Michigan,  Minnesota  and  Ar- 
kansas, where  public  lands  existed  that  could  be  set  aside 
as  national  forests  without  purchase.  A  determined  and 
well-sustained  fight  has  been  waged  to  bring  about  the  pur- 
chase of  mountain  lands  in  the  Southern  Appalachians  but 
without  success. 

State  Forestry. 

It  is  probable  that  in  the  East,  forestry  will  be  more 
extensively  practiced  by  state  governments  than  by  the 
nation. 

Already  several  states  have  inaugurated  the  policy  of 
buying  lands  for  forest  reserves.  New  York,  the  first  state 
to  do  so,  now  owns  in  the  Adirondacks  and  Catskills  1,655,- 
000  acres  obtained  largely  by  purchase.  Pennsylvania  has 
bought,  or  is  under  contract  to  buy,  967,000  acres  of  forest 
land  around  .the  headwaters  of  the  streams  flowing  into 
the  Atlantic,  and  can  spend  annually  $300,000  for  this  pur- 
pose. New  Jersey,  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  are 


B— III — 14 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  77 

spending  small  annual  appropriations  of  from  $3,000  to 
$10,000  in  purchasing  lands  for  state  forest  reserves. 

But  states  do  not  always  establish  reserves  solely  in 
mountainous  land.  Wisconsin  has  no  mountains,  yet  she 
set  aside  all  of  her  public  lands  in  the  northern  third  of 
the  state  as  forest  reserves,  totalling  over  260,000  acres. 
Michigan  has  made  a  beginning  with  37,000  acres  in  the 
midst  of  a  flat,  sandy  plain.  These  reserves  must  be  justi- 
fied by  something  more  than  the  effect  of  forests  on  the 
runoff  or  erosion. 

'  Agricultural  Soils  versus  Forest  Soils. 

There  are  two  arguments  to  favor  these  reserves,  neith- 
er of  which  is  as  yet  accepted  by  the  public  as  a  whole.  The 
first  is  that  land  may  be  too  poor  for  agriculture  and  should 
therefore  not  be  farmed,  but  devoted  to  forests,  for  which 
it  is  entirely  suited.  The  second  is  that  the  state  can  go 
into  the  business  of  producing  timber  and  succeed  better 
than  the  individual,  yet  without  injury  to  the  interests  of 
those  individuals  who  wish  to  raise  timber.  As  to  the  first 
proposition,  could  the  truth  be  clearly  set  forth  it  would 
convince  the  most  skeptical.  Sandy  land  without  a  clay  or 
compact  subsoil  will  not  retain  either  moisture  or  fertility. 
They  are  easily  tilled  but  soon  exhausted  and  even  clover 
fails  to  maintain  their  fertility.  Except  when  located  in 
the  near  vicinity  of  large  markets  where  truck  crops  can 
be  grown,  and  the  land  heavily  fertilized  artificially,  it  is 
not  possible  to  earn  a  good  living  on  such  lands.  Areas  of 
this  character  exist  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minne- 
sota, and  in  each  state,  it  is  found  that  such  farms  are  usu- 
ally abandoned  after  a  more  or  less  protracted  struggle 
with  adverse  conditions.  Were  this  the  final  result,  the 
question  would  be  solved.  But  land  speculators  are  able 
to  obtain  such  lands  very  cheap,  and  by  means  of  flaring 
advertisements,  which  may  be  read  every  day  in  the  press, 
they  attract  from  the  city  inexperienced  victims  who  pay 


78  FORESTRY 

them  ten  times  what  the  land  has  cost  them,  and  in  addi- 
tion give  a  mortgage  which  they  are  never  able  to  pay  off. 
If  the  original  settlers  failed,  these  later  victims  are  sure 
to,  and  such  lands  become  a  sponge  to  extract  the  savings 
of  land  hungry  purchasers.  The  only  possible  relief  is  for 
the  state  to  acquire  such  lands  and,  by  devoting  them  to 
forestry,  not  only  put  an  end  to  this  disgraceful  swindle 
but  aid  in  restoring  such  regions  to  a  fair  degree  of  prosper- 
ity which  the  presence  of  forests  on  the  poorer  land  would 
insure. 

The  State  as  a  Producer  of  Timber. 

As  for  the  state  going  into  the  business  of  producing 
timber,  which  is  considered  un-American  in  principle,  it  can 
be  shown  that  in  every  way  this  will  encourage  individual 
effort  along  the  same  lines.  It  has  always  been  true  of 
wood  products  that  the  greater  the  quantity  of  a  certain 
species  produced  in  a  restricted  locality,  the  more  profit 
there  was  in  handling  it.  Operations  could  be  planned  on 
a  large  scale  and  all  the  costs  of  logging  and  marketing 
reduced,  while  at  the  same  time  the  product  became  known 
and  accepted  as  a  staple  article  in  manufacturing  lines.  So 
great  will  be  the  scarcity  of  wood  in  the  future,  and  so 
comparatively  little  will  be  raised,  unless  the  movement 
for  reforesting  waste  lands  proceeds  much  faster  than  now, 
that  the  combined  efforts  of  state  and  individual  will  fall 
far  short  of  the  demand,  and  if  wood  is  not  to  cease  to  be 
an  article  of  trade,  it  is  necessary  that  enough  be  raised 
to  make  it  worth  while  to  rely  upon  it  in  the  future  for  man- 
ufacturing and  other  uses.  State  timber  will  help  maintain 
the  market  for  private  timber.  But  in  other  ways  state  for- 
ests will  benefit  private  forestry.  Where  states  have  estab- 
lished forest  reserves,  it  is  their  policy  to  protect  them  from 
fire  and  to  plant  trees.  The  example  and  encouragement 
thus  given  to  individuals  makes  it  much  easier  for  the 
latter  to  carry  out  plans  for  forest  production.  Some 


HERMAN  H.  CHAPMAN  79 


states,  like  Connecticut  and  IVfassachusetts,  put  tjhis  as  the 
primary  object  of  such  forest/reserves^  ^ut  iii  the  final 
analysis,  it  takes  permanent  ownership  and  a  settled  pol- 
icy to  bring  success  in  raising  trees  on  a  large  scale.  Pri- 
vate owners  die  and  their  estates  are  sold,  or  they  change 
their  minds  and  cut  the  timber  and  there  is  nothing  to 
prevent  these  things.  With  states  or  the  nation  as  owner, 
and  a  policy  once  strongly  intrenched  by  popular  support, 
the  best  possible  opportunity  is  given  to  the  forester  to 
grow  the  timber  which  will  supply  our  needs  in  the  future. 
Eeal  progress  in  forestry  in  any  state  will  be  largely  meas- 
ured by  the  extent  to  which  the  state  itself  is  interested 
in  forest  lands. 


A  Reference  Work 

Containing  Hundreds  of    Practical  Answered 
Questions  about  the  Lumber  Business. 

Some  of  the  Subjects  Treated: 

Points  for  the  yard  man  on  buying,  storing-  and  selling  lumber. 

A  practical  treatise  on  lumber  law,  defining  the  rights  of  buyers 
and  sellers,  with  particular  reference  to  contracts  of  sale. 

Questions  relating  to  contracts,  to  the  acceptance  of  lumber  and 
rights  of  consignee  and  consignor. 

Transportation  problems,  a  labybrinth  of  complex,  instructive 
and  vital  points  of  law  and  fact. 

Native  timbers,  their  properties  and  uses. 

Production  of  the  various  kinds  of  lumber  and  methods  of  trans- 
portation. 

Mill  construction  and  operation. 

Saw  mill  application  and  labor  saving  devices. 

Evolution  of  wood  working  machinery. 


Table  of  Contents  on  Request. 


Price,  postpaid,  $2.00  a  copy. 


AMERICAN  LUMBERMAN, 

431    South  Dearborn  Street.          -          -          CHICAGO. 


32366 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


